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63d Congress \ otpxt a titt / Document 

3d Session | bENATH. | ^^ .^g 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF 
GREAT BRITAIN 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE 



37 

THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSErT^ 







r^ 



PRESENTED BY MR. CHAMBERLAIN 
January 26, 1915. — Ordered to be printed 



WASHINGTON 
1915 



lilt 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT 

BRITAIN. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 



In view of our great need of officers for Volunteer troops, it is 
thought desirable to furnish at this time a description of the system 
now in vogue in Great Britaii:i. This system is but one of the many 
means of supplying officers for the new army of 1,000,000 men, 
which is being recruited, officered, and trained to meet the demands 
made upon the Empire by the war. 

This description has been comj^iled from the latest data now on 
file in the War College Division of the General Staff. 

Part I. A general description of the plan of organization and results 
expected from the corps. From reports of military and foreign 
attaches and from the Broad Arrow and Army Gazette. 

Part II. A more detailed description of the plan: Excerpts from 
the latest army order relating to the Officers Training Corps. 

Part III. A detailed description of the requirements for training 
in annual camps for the junior division. Excerpts from army order 
relating to training of the junior division. 

As the difficulties encountered in Great Britain are similar to 
those which would be encountered by us should we become involved 
in a great war, interest therefore attaches to any scheme by which 
Great Britain has already attempted to meet the deficiency in officers, 
which deficiency is fully as great, if not more so, than our own. 

The regulations relating to annual camps for the training of cadets 
in the junior division are of interest to those who may desire to 
attend one of our summer student camps or who may have to deal 
with their organization or administration. 



Part I. THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

After the Boer War, when the British Government forally decided 
to make a radical change in its militar}^ polic}^, steps were then taken 
to provide for a certain and steady supply of officers for troops 
in time of war or for the new Territorial Army, organized in 1907. 
In order to obtain men of the requisite mental qualifications as 
well as proper standing for the corps of officers, the British Govern- 
ment called into consultation a number of the heads of the big 
universities, colleges, and public schools. After a thorough in- 
vestigation of the possibilities, it was determined to form in each 
of the universities and colleges, as well as the public schools, a corps 
which, in time of peace, would furnish officers for the Special Reserve 
or Territorials, with the idea of finally, in case of a call for large 
bodies of volunteers, commissioning all such candidates as might 
be then serving in the Officers Training Corps or who had passed 



6 THE OFFIOEES TBAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

into civil life and had not become part of the Territorials or Special 
Keserve. There were a number of excellent suggestions made in the 
first place, but it was not until after 1907 that the final organization 
of the Officers Training Corps was completed. 

There is no doubt but that the present scheme of mihtary instruc- 
tion at our land-grant colleges was investigated by the committee 
of General Staff officers, who reported on the proposition, and who 
finally recommended the present plan which resembles the scheme 
laid down in the present regulations issued by our War Depart- 
ment. In the early part of 1908 a special Army order was issued 
making provision for the organization of the Officers Training Corps. 
The object of this corps was to provide students at schools and uni- 
versities with a standardized measure of elementary military train- 
ing, with a view to their eventually becoming Special Reserve 
or Territorial officers. It was hoped that, by means of this instruc- 
tion, certain young men would be willing to take these commissions 
as Special Reserve or Territorial officers, and by producing certifi- 
cates of proficiency, obtained in the Officers Training Corps, would 
be exempted from a portion of the probationary training, or from 
certain examinations required for officers in these forces. It also 
was hoped that the supply of officers would be increased, and that 
all arms and services would not only be complete in officers on 
mobilization, but that there would also be a surplus in the junior 
commissioned ranks in order to make good the losses suffered at the 
beginning of the war. 

The oi-ganization of the Officers Training Corps did not take place 
until the regulations, issued for the guidance and control of that corps, 
received recognition by university and school authorities, and it was 
not until this control was obtained that the organization or formation 
of a cadet organization was permitted. At this time there were 
approximately 21,000 young men under instruction in the colleges 
and preparatory schools of the United States undergoing a course 
somewhat similar to these young men whose organization into the 
Officers Training Corps had just been authorized. There is, however, 
this difference, that the control of and standardization of instruction 
and exammations is regulated by a section of the Imperial General 
Staff, while at prt>sent in this country no such control is provided 
under the law, nor is it looked upon with any degree of friendliness 
by a majority of college authorities. 

CONSTITUTION. 

The Officers Training Corps is outside of the territorial organiza- 
tion of the Army. For purposes of organization it is directly under 
the War Department and mdependent of the county associations, 
while the traming is directly under the Chief of Staff and his assistants. 
The corps is organized into two divisions: (1) Senior division, con- 
sistmg of university units; ( ') junior division, consisting of public- 
school units . The existmg self-contained University Volunteer Corps, 
which, under the law of 1907, could be converted into Territorial 
units, and the univei*sity companies, which now form part of the local 
Volunteer units, were permitted to transfer with their present organi- 
zation to the senior division of the Officers' Training Corps. 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 7 

Similarly the existing Volunteer corps and companies and the cadet 
corps of public schools were permitted to transfer to the junior divi- 
sion, retaining their arms and equipment and altering their organiza- 
tion as little as possible. On a corps becoming a unit of the Officers 
Training Corps its affiliation to a local Volunteer unit ceases, and it 
comes directfy under the control of the War Office. The relations 
between an Officers Trammg Corps unit and a local Territorial unit 
were to be a matter for adjustment by their respective commanding 
officers. It was therefore clear that it was to the mutual advantage 
of each that these relations be made as close as would be consistent 
with the fact that each unit drew its income from a different fund, 
and that no county association would be required to advance funds 
for the upkeep of an Officers Training Corps unit. 

In order to be eligible to join an Officers Training Corps a university 
or school contingent must have an enrolled strength of not less than 
30 cadets and an establishment of officers qualified to impait the 
necessary instruction. A university desiring to furnish a unit for the 
Officers Training Corps must possess a committee of mifitary educa- 
tion officially recognized by the university authorities, and certain 
officers of the unit must be ex officio members of this committee. Any 
school or university corps may apply to the Army Council for per- 
mission to join the Officers Training Corps, but no corps is admitted 
unless it reaches the standard laid down and is, in the opinion of the 
Army Council, capable of efficiently carrying out the work prescribed. 
In the same manner the Army Council may disband any university or 
school cori3s should it consider its retention as a unit of the Officers 
Training Corps undesirable in view of the object for which the corps 
was organized and maintained. 

CONDITIONS OF SERVICE. . 

Cadets of the Officers Training Corps are not lialjle for service. 
University cadets will be enrolled to serve under a contract which|is 
drawn up by each university to suit its own conditions. The Army 
Council must approve this contract before it is submitted to the cadets 
for their signatures. Membership in a unit need not be confined to 
matriculated members of a university, but will be open, under con- 
ditions drawn up by each university and subject to approval by the 
Army Council, to gentlemen who, though not members of the uni- 
versity, are desirous of obtaining certificate of proficiency in the mil- 
itary course. The enrollment of school cadets, their conditions of 
service, and dismissal is left in the hands of the authorities of the 
institution, within the limits laid down by the regulations. 

TRAINING. 

Each unit will be trained by its own officers under the direct control 
of the Chief of Staff and his assistants. Regular officers who are tem- 
porarily attached to the General Staff will be appointed to universities 
or groups of universities to perform the duties of adjutants and to 
assist in the training of both divisions of the Officers Training Corps. 



8 THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

CERTIFICATES OF PROFICIENCY. 

Two certificates of proficiency, clesig;nated "A" and "B," wiU be 
obtainable by members of the Officers Traiiiino; Corps. Certificate A 
represents the standard of proficiency which should be reached by a 
school cadet after two years' efficient service in the junior division, 
and certificate B that which should be reached by a university cadet 
after two years' efficient service in the senior division. The syllabi 
for the examinations for these certificates are given in the army order 
and carry with them certain privileges. Certificate A will entitle the 
holder, should he take a commission in the Special Reserve, to a reduc- 
tion of the probationary trammg by 4 months, or 14 da^-s, accordmg 
as the normal period is 12 months or 3 months. Should he take a 
Territorial commission, to exemption from the whole or part of the 
examuiation for promotion to the rank of lieutenant.^ Should he 
offer himself as a candidate for Woolwich or Sandhurst,^ to receive 200 
marks m the competitive examination held by the Civil Service Com- 
missioners for entrance to those establishments. Certificates A and B 
will entitle the holder, should he take a commission in the Special 
Reserve, (a) to a reduction of the probationary training by 8 months, 
or 1 month, according as the normal period is 12 months or 3 months; 
(b) to a gratuity of £35 payable at the same time as his outfit allow- 
ance. Should lie take a Territorial commission, to exemption from 
the whole or part of the examination for promotion to the rank of 
captam.' Before he can undergo the exammation for certificate A, 
a school cadet must have performed two years' efficient service in the 
junior division. Officers Training Corps; and similarly a miiversity 
cadet must have performed two years' efficient service in the senior 
division before he can be exammed for certificate B. A cadet can 
not midergo the examuiation for certificate B unless he is already 
in possession of certificate A. 

CORPS ALLOWANCES AND GRANTS. 

In the senior division a yearly capitation fee of £2 shall be paid 
to each university unit for every ''efficient" cadet on the strength. 
A grant of £5 wall be paid to each university unit for each cer- 
tificate B obtained by a subaltern officer or cadet of that unit. A 
grant of 3s. per day will be paid to university units for each member 
attendmg camp, up to a maximum of 15 days annually. In the junior 
division a yearly capitation fee of £1 will be paid to each school miit 
for every efficient cadet on the strength, provided that 50 per cent of 
those for whom the efficiency grant is claimed have attended the 
camp during the year. 

GRANT FOR CERTIFICATE A. 

A grant of £10 is paid to school units for each cadet obtaining 
certificate A who is afterwards granted a commission in the Special 
Reserve or Territorial force. 

1 The extent of the exemption allowed is based on the qualifications for promotion for officers of the 
different arms and services, as laid down in the Regulations for the Territorial Force, 1908. 

2 The first entrance examination for Woolwich and Sandhurst at which this factor came into force 
was that held in November, 1909. 



THE OFFICEES TEAIXIXG COEPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 9 

In the senior division issues of arms, equipment, and ammunition 
are free. In the junior division arms are issued free to eaeh unit 
in the following proportion: A serviceable arm (rifle or carbine) to 
each cadet of sufficient age to carry out practice, up to a maximum 
of 50 per cent of the total enrolled strength of the unit ; a " D. P." arm 
(rifle or carbine) to each of the remainder. There will be no free issue 
of equijDment or uniform. Ammunition will be issued free on a scale 
to be laid down hereafter. 

CONDITIONS OF SERVICE OF OFFICERS. 

Officers of the Officers Training Corps will be gazetted to commis- 
sions as officers of the Territorial force, and will enjoy the same privi- 
leges, precedence, and emoluments, and be subject to the same con- 
ditions as to first appointment, promotion, and retirement, as other 
officers of that force, with such modifications as the Army Council 
may think fit to introduce. Officers will have, as individuals, the 
same habilities for service as other Territorial officers, their services 
on embodiment being at the disposal of the Army Council. Recom- 
mendations for first appointments to the Officers Training Corps wiU 
be made by the executive head of the university or the head master 
of the school in whose contingent the officer wishes to serve. Pro- 
motion will be based on length of service, conditionally on the officer 
having qualified for higher rank. Local rank may be granted to 
officers commanding units. Commissioned officers now serving in 
university or school corps who go over to the Officers Training Corps 
with their units will have their commissions confirmed as officers of 
the Territorial force in the rank and with the seniority to which they 
are entitled at the time of transfer. Officers of Territorial units and 
officers of the Special Reserve may be seconded for service with the 
Officers Training Corps. 

"The scheme during the first four years of its operation has been 
very fairly successful, as will be seen from the following table, giving 
the number of ex-cadets who, up to date, have accepted commissions 
in the Special Reserve or Teiritoi ial force. ^ In addition to those who 
have actually accepted commissions it must be remembered that 
there are a large number of others who have passed through the 
Officers Training Corps and have leceived the training (lualifying 
them for subaltern rank. Although some have now passed into civu 
life, and, for reasons good or bad, have not seen theii' way to serve in 
time of peace, while others are serving in the ranks, it is certain that 
they would come forward in sufficient numbers to fill gaps on mobiliza- 
tion for war." 



1 Note.- 





Appointed 
to Special 
Reserve. 


Appointed to 
Territorial force. 


1909 


15 

S3 

159 

213 

285 




1910 


553 


1911 




1912 


343 


1913 


449 







10 THE OFFICEES TEAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

THE CADET BATTALIONS. 

[Report on voluntary service. Great Britain.] 

''In addition to the cadet battalions and companies which form 
part of the Oflicers Training Corps, there is an increasing number of 
ordinary cadet battahons and companies all over the United Kingdom. 
They are recognized by the War Office, and administered by county 
associations, who draw a small grant on their behaK. They form a 
valuable link between the l)oyhood of a locality and the units found 
by that locality for the Territorial force, and a very large number 
of their ex-cadets are now j^assing regularly each year into the Home 
Army. 

"No mention is made here of the Boy Scouts' organization, or of 
such of the Boys' Brigades as have decided not to apply for recogni- 
tion as cadets, through which, of course, the vast majority of the boys 
of this country pass at one time or other of their boyhood. The 
primary object of these valuable voluntary organizations is not mili- 
tary, and they therefore not only do not receive but will not accept 
official recognition by the military authorities. Nevertheless, they 
are a striking testimony to the popularity of voluntary service in the 
country when wisely and sympathetically administered, and can not 
fail to leact favorably both u]^on the discipline and the numbers of all 
the branches of the Imperial forces." 

Authorities. — Broad Arrow; orders. War Office, London. 



Part n. EXCERPT FROM THE ARMY ORDER CONTAINING 
REGULATIONS FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF THE OFFICERS* 
TRAINING CORPS. 

I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

Object. — The primary object of the Officers Training Corps is to 
provide students at schools and universities with a standardized 
measure of elementary military training, with a view to their even- 
tually applying for commissions in the Special Reserve of Officers or 
the Territorial force. It should, therefore, be understood that the 
aim of every university and school which provides a contingent for 
the Offi.cers Training Corps must be to provide as many officers for the 
Special Reseive of Officers and the Territorial force as possible. 

Recognition of 'proficiency . — Gentlemen, who, on being recommended 
for commissions in the Special Reserve of Officers or the Teriitorial 
force, can produce certificates of ]3roficiency obtained in the Officers 
Training Corps, will be exempted from a portion of the probationary 
training, or From certain examination, i-c^iuired from other officers. 
By means of the facilities thus offered to men who wish to serve their 
country with the least possible interference with their civil career, 
it is hoped that the supply of officers may be increased, and that all 
arms and services may not only be complete in officers on mobihza- 
tion, but also have a surplus in the junior commissioned ranks in 
order to make good the losses which will occur in war. The value 
of the above-mentioned certificates of proficiency Ues in their being 
the guarantee of from two to four years' consecutive training of a 
nature calculated to })roduce good officers. 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 11 

If. CONSTITUTION. 

The Olficeis Training Coijis consists of contingents of those uni- 
versities and schools whose offer has been acceptel by the Army 
Council. 

Conditions of eligibility to joiii. — To be ehgible for inclusion in the 
Officers Training Corps a university or school contingent must show 
an enrolled strength of not less than 30 cadets, and must have at least 
one commissioned officer per company. A university desiring to 
furnish a contingent for the Officers Training Cori s must j^jossess a 
committee of military education officially i ecognized by the university 
authorities, and certain ofiicers of the contingent must be ex officio 
members of this committee. 

Schools in receipt of a parliamentary grant. — Financial assistance 
will in no case be given to any school in receipt of a parliamentary 
grant in respect of the military training of &nj boy who has not at- 
tained the age of 16 years. The term ''financial assistance" includes 
the issue of arms an(] ammunition; but schools already in receipt of 
such assistance may retain their lifles and e uipments, and continue 
to receive issues of ammunition. 

III. CONTROL. 

Control. — For purposes of organization and control the Officers 
Training Corps, except Irish contingents which are under the general 
officer commanding in chief in Ireland, is directl}^ under the War 
Office. 

The training is under the direction of the Chief of the Imperial 
General Staff. 

Universit}^ and school authorities will retain their ordinary powers 
of supervision and discipline. 

Relations with local military units. — The relations between an Offi- 
cers Training Corps contingent and a local unit of the Regular forces, 
Special Reserves, or Territorial force A^dll be a matter for adjustment 
by their respective commanding officers, who mil correspond direct. 
Inasmuch as the Officers Training Corps is intended to become the 
principal source from which officers for the Special Reserve and the 
Territorial force 'wdll be drawn, it will be to the mutual advantage of 
each that their relations be as close as is consistent with the fact that 
each unit draws its income through a different channel and that no 
county association can be called on to incur any expense in respect 
of the Officers Training Corps. It is intended that units of the Offi- 
cers Training Corps should, when possible, obtain facilities from 
local units as regards technical instruction, the loan of material, and 
the use of rifle ranges and training grounds. If required, payment 
will be made out of the Officers Training Corps funds to the county 
association concerned, for the hire or use of any property of the 
association. 

IV. ORGANIZATION. 

(reneral organization. — The Officers Training Corps is organized in 
two divisions: (a) Senior di^dsion, composed of university con- 
tingents; (b) junior division, composed of school contingents. 



12 THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

A university contingent may be made up of one or more units, 
according as one or more arms or departments of the service are 
represented. In cases where a university comprises practically au- 
tonomous colleges, situated at a distance from each other, a separate 
unit may be formed in each of the different colleges; but each such 
unit will be a part of the university contingent. School contingents 
wiU comprise infantr}^ or engineers onl}^. 

Internal organization. — Each unit will be organized as a battalion, 
battery, squadron, or field ambulance, or in companies (one or more), 
sections, or troops. As regards the details of internal organization, 
the general rules given below will be followed. 

Estahlisliment of units. — If it is desired to raise the establishments 
of units without adding to the number of companies, etc., or to in- 
crease the number of companies, etc., in a contingent, sanction must 
be obtained from the War Oilice. 

(a) Cavalry: (1) The strength of a troop wiU not exceed 30 cadets; 
(2) imits with a total strength of from 31 to 60 cadets will be organized 
as two troops; (3) units with a strength of 61 to 90 cadets will be 
organized as a squadron of three troops; (4) units \vith a strength of 
from 91 to 120 cadets will be organized as a squadron of four troops, 

(b) Field and Heavy Artillery: (1) Units having a total strength 
not exceeding 60 cadets will be organized as a section; (2) units hav- 
ing a strength of from 61 to 120 cadets will be organized as a four-gun 
battery; (3) units having a strength of over 120 cadets will be organ- 
ized as a six-gun battery, except in the case of Heavy Artillery, which 
will always be organized as in (1) or (2). 

(c) Engineers, Infantry, and Army Service Corps : (1) The strength 
of a company will not exceed 100 cadets; (2) should the strength of 
a unit exceed 100 cadets, two or more companies of not less than 50 
cadets each will be formed; (3) should the strength of an infantry 
unit exceed 400 of all ranks, it will be organized as a battalion of 5 or 
more companies. 

{d) Medical: (1) Units with a strength not exceeding 90 cadets 
will be organized as a section of a fiehl ambulance; (2) if the total 
strength exceeds 90, a second section will as a rule be formed. 

{e) Veterinary: A unit with a strength not exceedmg 100 cadets 
will be organized in four sections Army Veterinary Corps. 

(/) In all units the cyclists, signalers, buglers, and band cadets 
will be inchuled in the strength of companies, and not organized as 
separate units. 

The estabhshment of officers, noncommissioned officers, drummers, 
etc., for the above units is given in Appendix II. 

V. CONDITIONS OF SERVICE. 

1. (OFFICERS GENERAL CONDITIONS 

Four classes of officers. — Officers of the Officers Trammg Corps may 
belong to any of the followhag classes: (1) Officers who have been 
gazetted to commissions in, or transferred to, the unattached hst of 
the Territorial force, for service with the Officers Traming Corps; 
(2) officers of Special Reserve ^ or Territorial force units who have been 

1 The words "Special Reserve," used in this section, will be held to include the Channel Islands Militia 
and the military forces of the colonies. 



THE OFFICEES TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 13 

seconded for service with the Officers Training Corps; (3) officers of 
Special Reserve or Territorial force units who are temporarily at- 
tached for duty with the Officers Training Corps; (4) officers of med- 
ical units appomted to the Territorial Royal Army Medical Corps, 
supernumerary for service with the Officers Trainmg Corps. In the 
case of undergraduate officers, who are not qualilied as practitioners 
under the medical acts, they will be appointed "on probation" until 
they have obtained the necessary qualification, when they wiU be 
confirmed in their appointment. 

Conditions of service. Officers will have, as inchviduals, the same 
liabilities for service as othei officers of the Special Reserve or the 
T(UTitorial force, as the case may be; their services on embodiment 
will be at the disposal of the Army Council. 

Appointment. — Csidcti-, of the senior division, including university 
candidates for the Regular forces, who are recommended for commis- 
sions in the Territoria] force under paragraph 10 (1) and (4) for service 
with their university contingent must have qualified in the examina- 
tion for certificate A of the branch of th > service in which they pro- 
pose to serve. 

2. CADETS. 

Conditions of service. — Cadets of the Officers Training Corps will 
not have any legal liability to service, and will not be required to take 
the oath of allegiance. 

University cadets. — Cadets of the senior division will be enrolled to 
serve under a contract to be drawn up by each university to suit its 
own conditions. Membership need not be con&ied to members of a 
university, but may be open, at the discretion of the university au- 
thorities and officers commanding units, and under the terms of the 
contract mentioned above, to gentlemen who, though not members 
of the university, are desirous of gaining certificates of proficiency 
obtainable in the Officers Training Corps, and to students who, on 
passing out of residence, are desirous of remaining in the contingent 
in order to obtain these certificates, subject to the approval of the 
military committee. 

School cadets. — 'No boy under 13 j^ears of age will be enrolled in the 
junior division; otherwise the conditions for enrollment, service, and 
dismissal of school cadets will be in the hands of head masters and 
school authorities within the limits of these ):egulations. Cadets 
who have left the school may, with the approval of the head master, 
bt' retained in the contingent, on the understanding that such cadets 
are continuing their service for the sole purpose of obtaining certifi- 
cate A. In no case can they remain after attaining the age of 20. 

Cadet officers. — In the junior division cadets may, with the ap- 
proval of head masters, be appointed "cadet officers" in the propor- 
tion of 1 cadet officer to every 30 cadets. Cadet officers will wear 
officer's uniform without any badges of rank; they will not hold com- 
missions, and will not be recognized as officers, or exercise any power 
of command as such, outside their own units. 

Adjutants, senior division. Adjutants of contingents will not 
merely be required to assist in the administration of the contingent; 
they must be fully competent to undertake the duties of instructor 
and lecturer in the theory and practice of the subjects which are in- 
cluded in the military education of cadets ; and as ex officio members 



14 THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

of the military committees of universities they must be qualified to 
advise the committee on all matters of military education and training. 

Appointments will be made by the War Office from the approved 
list of candidates. Officers desiring that their names may be noted 
on this list will submit their applications thi'ough the usual channel. 
In view of the extreme importance of their position, it is desirable 
that commanding officers should forward the names of those officers 
only whom they consick^r fully qualified to undertake the duties and 
hkely to acquire a strong influence over the cadets of the contingent. 

Sergeant 'insirw^tors. Noncommissioned officers of the Regular 
forces will be appointed to the establishment of contingents of the 
senior division. No instructor will be attached to a unit, or part of 
a unit, of the senior division, whose strength is less than 30 cadets, 
nor to a unit of th(^ junior division in any case. 

VI. TRAINING. 
OFFICERS. 

Attendance at parades.— Insismuch as the training of caches is for 
the greater part of the year in the hands of the officers of each con- 
tingent, it is desirable that officers should attend all drills at which 
cadets of their squadron, company, etc., are present, unless excused 
by the officer commanding the contingent. Commanding officers of 
contingents will certify in the annual inspection report that all officers 
on the establishment of the contingent have attended the number of 
drills laid down for Territorial force officers of the same branch of 
the service in Territorial Force Regulations, Appendix 6. 

Regimental exercises. Regimentsd exercises will be organized by 
the General Staff at the War Office, with the assistance of such officers 
of the Officers Training Corps as may reside in the neighborhood of 
the place where the tour is held. The duties of the directing staff 
will, when required, be carried out by Regular officers detailed by 
general officers commanding in chief. 

Camp training. —All officers of contingents of the senior division 
should, if possible, be present at the annual camp of their contingent. 
In the junior division, should the number of officers in a contingent 
exceed 1 to every 30 catU^ts attending camp, leave may be granted 
at the discretion of the officer commanding. Officers excuscnl from 
attending the annual camp with their contingent should endeavor 
either to perform training by being attached to a unit of the Regular 
forces. Special Reserve, or the Territorial force, or to attend a course 
of instruction as laid down in paragraph 382, Territorial Force Regu- 
lations. 

CADETS. 

Object of training. — The object of all training in the Officers Train- 
ing Corps is to bring the largest possible number of cadets up to the 
standard of proficiency indicated by the syllabus laid down for the 
examination for certificates A and B. 

Responsihility. — The training of the Officers Training Corps gen- 
erally is under the direction of the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. 
Each unit will be trained bv its own oflicers. 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 15 

Assistance from Regular officers, senior division. — In contingents of 
the senior division, the adjutant, as representative of the General 
Staff, will supervise the training of the contingent. He will be 
assisted for a few weeks prior to each of the half-yearly examinations 
for certificates of proficiency by Regular officers attached to the con- 
tingent. Officers commanding contingents in England, Scotland, and 
Wales will apply to the War Office for the officers they require. 
Officers commanding conting nts in Ireland will apply to the general 
officer commanding in chief the forces in Ireland. 

Junior division. In the junior di^'ision, assistance in the training 
of contingents will be given either by an officer detailed from a depot 
in the vicinity of the school, or by the adjutant of a neighbonng 
university contingent, or by an officer from headquarters, as shown in 
Appendix I^^ Such officers should pay occasional visits to the con- 
tingent during drills, maneuver practices, or musketry training, 
and should, when their duties permit, be present at field days and at 
the annual inspection. They will correspond direct with contingents. 

Nature of training. — Training will comprise: (a) Instructional pa- 
rades and exercises, and field operations; (b) musketry; (c) annual 
training in one of the camps organized for the Officers Training 
Corps. 

Instructional parades. — A parade will consist of not less than 45 
minutes' actual training. Two parades of half an hour each will 
count as one parade. Any tactical or instructional exercise is in- 
cluded under this heading. If the exercise is of not less than 3 hours' 
duration, it will count as two parades, but no single daj^'s work will 
be reckoned as more than two parades. Each complete day spent in 
annual camp will count as a parade up to a maximum of 5 davs an- 
nually in the senior division, and 10 days in the junior division. In 
the case of cadets of the senior division who are performing the addi- 
tional parades laid down, the maximum of 5 days will be increased 
to 10 days. 

Schools of musJcetry, signaling, and military engineering.— Csidets 
will undergo a musketry training on similar lines to that laid down for 
the Territorial force, or will perform the miniature course laid down 
for the Officers Training Corps. 

Cadets of the senior division who hold the rank of noncommissioned 
officers may be selected by officers commanding contingents to attend 
a course at a school of musketry, signaling, or military engineering. 
Names will be submitted through the headquarters of the command 
to the commandant of the school. 

Camps, senior division.— Camps of not less than 8 or more than 15 
days' duration will be held annually for units of the senior division 
at convenient centers. Arrangements will be submitted for approval 
to the General Staff" of the command in which the contingent is 
situated, who will obtain sanction from the War Office. Details 
will be worked out direct with the General Staff* of the command in 
which the camp is to be held. Cadets should bo encouragetl to at- 
tend as many parades as possible prior to the annual training in 
camp. 

Regular officers in camp. — Regular officers will, when necessary, be 
appointeel by the Army Council to command brigades, or such other 
units as may be formed provisionally for purposes of training in 
camp, and to fill staff' appointments in connection with camps. A 



16 THE OFFICEES TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

medical officer (either from the Regular forces or the Territorial 
force) will be appointed when necessary. 

Junior division. — Camps of not less than 8 days' duration will be 
held annually at the end of July for contingents of the junior division. 
The number" of camps formed will depend on the number of cadets 
expected to attend, and contingents v/ill, as a rule, be allotted to 
camps according to the command in which the school is situated. 

Attention is drawn to the instructions for the annual camps, which 
are issued by the War Office. 

Regular officers. — Each camp will be under the command of a 
Regular officer. Regular officers will also be appointed, when avail- 
able, to command battalions, or such other units as may bo formed 
for the purposes of camp, and to fill the necessary staff appointments. 
Medical officers will be appointed either from the Regular forces or 
the Territorial force. 

Inspections. — All contingents will be inspected annually by officers 
deputed by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Officers com- 
manding contingents will apply to the Director of Military Training, 
War Oiiice, not later than Ist of Februar}-, for the inspection of their 
contingents, stating what dates will be most suitable. Alternative 
dates should be given. 

VII. CONDITIONS OF EFFICIENCY. 

Cadets of senior division. — The conditions of efficiency will be as 
follows : 

A cadet who is borne on the strength of a unit of the senior division 
on 1st of October in any year will be entitled to be deemed an 
"efficient" if he is physically fit ^ and if during the preceding 12 
months he has fulfilled the following icquirements; (1) Attended not 
less than 15 instructional parades of his unit, of at least 45 minutes' 
duration each (as a recruit, not less than 30 parades — a cadet who 
has been returned as an efficient in the junior division will, not be 
reckoned as a recruit on joining a unit of the senior division) ; (2) 
undergone the prescribed training in musketry; (3) attended camp, 
of not less than 8 days' dui'ation, and been present at the annual 
inspection, except in cases of sickness duly certified or leave specially 
granted. 

Cadets of junior division.— A cadet borne on the strength of a unit 
of the junior division on 1st October in any year, who is ovex" 15 years 
of age on that date (for prospective candidates for the Ro^^al Militaiy 
Academy and the Royal Military College 14 years of age for exami- 
nation purposes; for capitation fee, 15 years), Avill be entitled to be 
deemed an "efficient" if he is physically fit ^ arid if during the pre- 
ceding 12 months he has fulfilled the following requirements: (1) 
Attended not less than 30 instructional parades of his unit, of at least 
45 minutes' duration each (first year, not less than 40 paiades); (2) 
undergone the prescribed training in musketry; (3) been present at 
the annual mspection, except in case of sickness duly certified or leave 
specially granted. 

1 No special medical examination is required, and no grant will be made from Army funds in respect 
of such oxamiaation. In cases where a medical examination of a cadet of the senior division is held to be 
necessary, the examination should, if possible, be carried out by the riiedical olhcer of the nearest military 
station or by an officer of the medical unit of the contingent where such exists. The returning of a cadet 
as "etTicient" will be accepted as sufficient guaranty that he is physically fit. 



THE OFFICEES TEAINING CORPS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. 17 

Efficiency of contingent. -The inspecting officer will state in his 
report whether he considers the contingent, as a whole, to be efficient. 
The commanding officer or inspecting officer has power to direct that 
a cadet shall be deemed nonefficient should he consider it proper to 
do so, notwithstanding that the cadet may have fulffiled the efficiency 
conditions laid down above. 

VIII. CERTIFICATES OF PROFICIENCY. 

Certificates.- Two certificates of proficiency, designated, respec- 
tively, A and B, are obtainable by cadets. 

These certificates are a guaranty that the holder has completed a 
certain period of elHcient service in a contingent of the Officers' 
Training Corps, and that he has passed the written and oral tests 
prescri!)ed for the branch of the service to which his unit belongs. 
(See Appendix III.) 

For purposes of obtaining certificates in any branch of the service, 
the efficient service must have been performed in that branch. 

Examinations. — Written examinations in connection with these 
certificates will be held twice in each year. The papers will be set 
and corrected by officers deputed by the Chief of the Imperial Gen- 
eral Staff. (For syllabus, qualifying marks, dates, and instructions 
for carrying out the examinations, see Appendix III.) 

CERTIFICATE A. 

Eligibility, junioi' division. — A cadet of the junior division, whether 
belonging to an Infantry or to an Engineer contingent, will be eligible 
for certificate A, Infantry, only. 

He wiU not be eligible to undergo the examination for certificate A 
unless he has been returned as efficient in two years (see par. 63), and 
attended at the annual camp (par. 58) at least once. 

Masters enrolled as cadets under the provisions of paragraph 27 
may attend the examination, subject to the same conditions. 

Eligibility, senior division. — A cadet of the senior division may 
undergo the examination for certificate A at any time after he has 
completed one year's e3i?ient sei'vice as laid down in paragraph 62. 

A cadet joining the senior division, who has previously fulfilled the 
conditions of eligibility in the junior division (par. 67), may undergo 
the examination for certificate A, Infantry, at any time. 

Grant of certificate, senior division. — Certificate A will not be granted 
to a cadet until he has been returned as efficient in two years, in one 
of which he must have performed 15 instructional parades (10 if a 
recruit) in addition to those laid down for trained cadets or recruits in 
paragraph 62. ' 

Efficient service (but not in periods of less than a year) in the 
junior division wiU be allowed to count toward the grant of certificate 
A in the senior division. 

CERTIFICATE B. 

Eligibility to attend examination. — A cadet of the senior division 
will not be eligible to undergo the examination for certificate B until 
he has (a) passed the examination for certificate A in the same branch 
of the service ; (b) completed one year's efficient service as laid down 
in paragraph 62. 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 2 



18 



THE OFFICEES TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Officers of senior division eligible to attend. University students 
who, having previously obtained certiiicate A, have been appointed 
to commissions on the unattached hst of the Territorial force for 
service with a unit of the contingent of the university at which they 
are students, or have been seconded from a Territorial force unit for 
service with that contingent, may be allowed to attend examinations 
for certificate B (of their own branch of the service) held at that 
university. 

Grant of certificate. A cadet will not be granted the certificate 
until he has a total of two years' e ;:cient service, in one of which he 
must have performed 15 instructional parades (10 if a recruit) in 
addition to those laid down for trained cadets or recruits in para- 
graph 62. 

Cadets having qualified in the examination for certificate B who 
take a commission in the Special Keserve of Officers before com- 
pleting a second year's service will be granted certificate B and will 
enjoy the full advantages of that grant from the date of their com- 
mission. 

Exeni'piions, certificate B. — Candidates for certificate B, who have 
passed in Group E of the final pass schools examination, will ])e exempt 
from the first two papers of the written e^:amina.tion for certificate B. 

Cadets having qualified for certificate B, who, before completing a 
second year's service, are appointed to a commission in the Territorial 
force, will be granted the certificate and be entitled to the advantages 
conferred by that grant on completion of one year's service as an 
officer of a unit of the Territorial force. 

Advantages conferred hy certiiicate s. — The following advantages are 
conferred on cadets, who, after obtaining one or both certificates, 
accept commissions in the Special Reserve of Officers or Territorial 
force or offer themselves as candidates for Woolwich, Sandhurst, or 
the Royal Army Medical Coips. 

, SPECIAL RESERVE OF OFFICERS.! 



Certificates. 



Certificate A: 

All arms, except Engineers and In- 
fantry. 

Engineers : 

Infantry ■. 

Certificate B: 

All arms, except Engineers and In- 
fantry. 

Engineers , 

Infantry 

All arms 



Advantages conferred. 



A reduction of the probationary training by 4 months or 14 
dnys, according a= the normal pericd is 12 months or 3 months. 
A reduction of the pn batii nary training by 2 mcnths. 
A reduction of the probationary training by 1 month. 

A reduction of the probationary training, incUisive of that al- 
lowed for certificate A, by "^ months or (i weeks, according as 
the normal period is 12 nidnths or .3 months. 

A reduction of the prohationary training, inclusive of that al- 
lowed for certificate A. by 4 months. 

A reduction of the probationany training, inclusive of that al- 
lowed for certificate A, by 3 months. 

A gratuity of £35.» 



TERRITORIAL F0RCE.3 



Certificate A: All arms. 
Certificate B: All arms. 



To exemption from the whole or part of the examination for 

promotion to the rank of lieutenant. 
To exemption from the whole or part of the examination for 

promotion to the rank of captain. 



1 For further detiils see re!»'ihtions for. the Special Reserve. 

2 ShTiH aa ilieer w^i > h is i nlile 1 in the examinatinn for certificate B take a commission in the Special 
Reserve before he his completed the necessary eTRcient service (par. 72), he will be granted the gratuity. 

3 For further details see regulations for the Territorial force. 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 19 

CANDIDATES FOR WOOLWICH OR SANDHURST. 



Certificates. 


Advantages conferred. 


Certificate A: Infantry 


To receive 200 marks in the competitive examination held by 
the Civil Service Commissioners for entrance to those estab- 
lishments. 




CANDIDATES FOR COMMISSIONS IN THE NAVAL MEDICAL SERVICE AND ROYAL ARMY 

MEDICAL CORPS. 


Certificate A: Medical 


To receive 1 per cent of the maximum number of marks allotted 
to the compulsory subjects in the entrance examination. 

To receive 2 per cent of the maximum number of marks allotted 
to the compulsory subjects in the entrance examination. 


Certificate B : Medical 





Lectures. — In order to assist cadets of the senior division in attaining 
the standard of proficiency required from a candidate for certificate B, 
courses of lectures on the subjects included in the syllabus will be 
held in universities. Attendance at these lectures will not count as 
parades for purposes of efficiency. 

Names of lecturers. — The names of those whom the military com- 
mittees of universities propose to invite to give lectures, together with 
the subjects of the lectures, will be submitted for the approval of the 
Chief of the Imperial General Staff. 

IX. FINANCE. 

Pay and Allowances. 

Officers. — Officers of the Officers Training Corps will receive the 
same pay and allowances and will be subject to the same conditions 
as other officers of the Territorial force. 

Utnversity candidates. — A university candidate for a commission in 
the Regular forces who, before he commences the six weeks' attach- 
ment required of him, has been a])pointed an officer on the establish- 
ment of his university contingent Officers Training Corps, will be 
granted the outfit allowance, subject to the conditions laid down in 
the preceding paragraph. He will also be allowed to count the six 
weeks' attachment in lieu of the initial course, Territorial Force Regu- 
lations, but will not draw pay and allowances for more than four weeks 
of that attachment. 

A university candidate who is appointed an officer on the establish- 
ment of his contingent Officers Training Corps, after he has com- 
menced his six weeks' attachment, will have no claim to outfit grant 
or to pay -and allowances for any portion of his attachment; the 
attachment will, however, count in lieu of the initial course. 

REGULAR OFFICERS. 

Adjutants, senior division. — Regular officers appointed adjutants 
to universities or to groups of universities will receive the rates of 
pay and additional pay laid down for adjutants of the Regular forces 
in the pay warrant and allowances as for adjutants of the Territorial 
force. 



20 THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

Corps Allowances and Grants, 
senior division. 

Capitation grant. — A yearly capitation grant of £2 will be paid to 
each university unit for every "efficient" cadet on the strength.^ 

Half capitation grant and greatcoat allowance. — A half capitation 
grant of £1 will be paid, in addition to the grant for each new 
''efficient" member enrolled in excess of the highest number for 
whom capitation grants have been drawn in any previous year. A 
greatcoat allowance of £1 will also be issued in respect of each mem- 
ber enrolled m excess of the highest number for whom this allowance 
has previously been drawn. 

Grant for certificate B. — A grant of £5 will be made to a university 
unit in respect of each certificate B obtained by a cadet of that unit.^ 
No individual can earn this grant more than once. The grant will 
be additional to any "efficiency" grant which a cadet may have 
earned for the year in question. 

Additional grants. — Additional grants to any earned under the 
foregoing paragraphs will be made as follows: 

Cavalry units: {a) A capitation grant of £3 5s. for each efficient 
cadet and sergeant instructor; (b) special camp allowance of 6s. 8d. 
daily for each officer or cadet not provided with a public horse, for 
whom a horse is maintained; ^ (c) the regulation ration of forage in 
kind, or, when this can not be issued, forage allowance at current 
rates, as given in Army orders; ^ {d) travefing allowance of 3(1. a mile 
for officers' horses, 2|d. a mile for cadets' or draft horses (see par. 790, 
Territorial Force Regulations), to cover cost of conveyance of a horse 
for the double journey to and from camp, if the distance exceeds 10 
miles.^ 

Artillery and Army Service Corps units: (e) A capitation grant 
of £1 for each cadet certified to be reasonably efficient in mounted 
duties, subject to the general conditions laid down in paragraph 745, 
Territorial Force Regulations. 

JUNIOR DIVISION. • 

Capitation grant. — A yearly capitation grant of £1 will be paid to 
a school contingent for every efficient* cadet over 15 years of age 
(16 in the case of schools in receipt of a parliamentary grant) (1) who 
is on the strength of the contingent on the 1st of October in the year 
in which the grant is claimed (other than cadets referred to in par. 
101), or (2) who has left the school at the end of the previous summer 
term, provided that 50 per cent of those for whom the grant is 
claimed have attended camp of not less than 8 days' duration during 
the year,^ and that the contingent is reported to be efficient by the 
inspecting officer at the annual inspection (see par. 64). 

Infectious illness. — Should a school contingent, or a part of it, be 
prevented from fulfilling the condition regarding attendance at camp 

1 Grants will be paid within and in respect of the financial year in which the cadets are returned as 
"effloient." 

s This grant can not be claimed in respect of officers of a contingent who attend the examination for 
certificate B under the provisions of paragraph 71. 

3 These allowances will also be paid in respect of officers of other units of the senior division who are 
entitled to the use of a horse. 

* This includes masters enrolled as laid down in par. 27. 

5 Thus, in a unit with, say, 120 "efficients" under par. 63, if 60 attended camp, £120 would be earned; 
i f 25 attended camp, £50 would be earned. 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 21 

by reason of an infectious illness, this condition will be modified. 
Applications for modification will be addressed to the secretary, War 
Ofnce, and will be accompanied by (1) a certificate from the medical 
officer in attendance at the camp to the effect that the contingent was 
prevented from attending camp owing to infectious illness; (2) a state- 
ment, certified by the officer commanding the contingent, showing 
the number of cadets over 15 (or 16) years of age (a) who were effi- 
cient on 1st of October, (h) who attended camp, (c) who would have 
attended camp but for the outbreak of infectious illness. The amount 
of the grant to be issued will then be assessed, and on authority will 
be forwarded to the officer commanding the contingent, who will at- 
tach to it his claim for the capitation grant. 

Grant for certificate A. — A grant of £10 will be made to school con- 
tingents for each cadet who has obtained certificate A while a member 
of the school and is afterwards granted a commission in the Special 
Reserve of Officers or the Territorial force.* 

Capital grant to new corps. — A small capital grant to assist in meet- 
ing the initial cost of providing ranges, instruction, accommodation 
for arms, and uniform, may be paid to schools not hitherto in posses- 
sion of a uniformed corps, according to their individual necessities, 
on their offer to furnish a contingent of the Officers Training Corps 
being accepted by the Army Council. The grant, when given, will 
take the form of an allowance per cadet; but no grant will be made in 
respect of cadets who are under 14 years of age, or, in schools in receipt 
of a parliamentary grant, under 16 years of age. The grants will be 
subject to audit and will only be made on a guaranty that the con- 
tingent, when started, will not be disbanded without reference to the 
Army Council. 

SENIOR AND JUNIOR DIVISIONS. 

Capitation grants under previous paragraphs may be claimed 
for every cadet who takes a commission in the Special Reserve 
of Officers or Territorial force, or, if a university candidate, in 
the Regular forces, provided that he has completed the requirements 
for efficiency for the year in which he takes a commission, or was 
returned efficient in the preceding year. 

Services on which grants may be expended. — The services upon which 
the allowances granted under the foregoing paragraphs may be ex- 
pended are as follows: 

Providing and maintaining headquarters and drill grounds, and 
the general expenses connected with the administration of the con- 
tingent, including the hire of land, ranges and buildings, the repair 
of buildings, and orderly room expenses; care, cleaning, repair, and, 
where necessary, insurance of arms; providing and maintaining 
ranges; cost of supplying ammunition, clothing, equipment, and ac- 
couterments, engineer stores, stationery and postage; traveling ex- 
penses to and from inspection, tactical exercises, ranges, etc.; repay- 
ment of loans; horsing mounted units, including insurance of horses 
as necessary; camp expenses, including rations, fuel and light, pail- 
lasse straw, and general expenses, and railway and transport charges. 
Charges on account of the provision of water, latrine accommodation, 
and sanitary services generally in camps and for the hire of camping 
ground, when a camp is necessarily held on other than War Depart- 

> This grant can not be claimed in respect of masters emolled as laid down in par. 27. 



22 THE OFFICEES TEAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

ment land, will, ' however, be borne by Army funds. When such hir- 
mg is necessary the matter should be referred to the War Office, in 
order that the necessary action may be taken through the general 
officer commanding the command in which the camp is to be situated, 
who will arrange for the provision of such water supply and sanitary 
services as may be required. 

Expenditure on the following services will also be allowed if, after 
the above charges have been provided for, such expenditure will not 
lead to the income for the year l^eing exceeded: 

Band expenses (where a band has been authorized), or the hiring 
of a band for a special occasion; prizes (not to exceed 5 per cent of 
the efficiency and proficiency grants combined). 

X. UNIFORM, ARMS, EQUIPMENT, BOOKS AND MAPS. 

All units of the Officers Training Corps will be uniformed. 

Free issue, senior contingents. —V^nch cadet on joining the senior 
division will receive from his unit a suit of service dress, a service-dress 
cap, a pair of gaiters or putties, and a greatcoat, subject to the pro- 
visions of the contract referreel to in paragraph 25. The sum of £2 
toward the cost of the outfit will, in the case of cadets who obtain, 
or have alreaely obtained certificate A, be paid from Army funds. 

Deviations from authorized patterns. —"No deviation from authorized 
patterns of uniform is permitted, and no articles of clothing or badges 
will be introduced without War Office approval. 

Efficiency badge. An efficiency badg*^ may be worn by cadets shown 
as efficient in the last annual return. This badge will consist of a 
hollow diamond of white piping or embroidery one-eighth inch wide 
on scarlet cloth 2f inches k)ng and three-fourths inch deep. It will 
be worn on the right forearm. 



Part III.— TRAINING OF THE JUNIOR DIVISION, OFFICERS 

TRAINING CORPS. 

It is expected that the members of the junior division. Officers 
Training Corps, will act as feeelcrs for the senior division, and there- 
fore a carefully prepared system of instruction is needed, so tliat 
work which has been accomplished in tliis division will not be repeated 
in the senior division. 

Not the least important part of the training required of this division 
is the annual camp, which it is expected all members will attend. 

The regulations issueel are quite explicit, anel the requirements are 
carefully anel clearly drawn so as not to overtax the caelets. The fol- 
lowing extracts are quoted to show the scope of the training: 

Object. — The object of the annual camp is not to turn out an efficient brigade or 
four fighting units, but (a) to afi'ord every cadet more advanced instruction in work 
in the fiehl and in the duties in camp of a soldier than it is possible for him to receive 
elsewhere; (b) to give officers such practical training as will best help them to instruct 
the cadets of their respective contingents. 

It should also be remembered that the training in camp is intended to play a leading 
part in fitting every cadet to become an officer. 

Over\vorking of cadets to be avoided. — The superior keenness and intelligence of cadets 
of the Officers Training Corps may perhaps admit of their training being of a rather 
more advanced character than would be profitable to other troops whose opportunities 
for preliminary work are equally limited. 

The commandant of a camp should not, however, be led by this superior keenness 
to make greater calls on the energy and vitality of the cadets than may reasonably be 
expected from boys of 15 to 16 years of age. 



THE OFFICERS TRAIjSTING COEPS OF GEEAT BEITAIN. 23 

In public-school boys the breaking point of their energy is so difficult to discove 
that a wide margin of safety should be allowed. 

Slaniard of previous training. — An outline of the standard of training to which it ia 
desirable that contingents should attain is given later. 

This outline is intended to be a guide to officers commanding in training their con- 
tingents in anticipation of camp and to the commandant in formulating his program 
of work. 

Guide to the program ofioork in camp. — The program of work, based on the standard 
of previous training referred to will be left to the discretion of tha officer appointed 
to command a camp, but in drawing it up consideration should be given to 
the following points: (a) Ceremonial parades should be as few as possible; (6) 
instruction should be as progressive as is possible in the few days available, the 
company being the unit of instruction; (c) brigade field days should not be held until 
cadets have had an opportunity of being thoroughly exercised in the details of attack 
and defense under their battalion commanders; {d) minor tactical schemes set by 
battalion commanders should often take the form of the questions set in the examina- 
tion for certificate A. 

Explanation and criticism of tactical exercises. — Criticism is often the best means of 
instruction, and no exercise should be brought to a conclusion without a careful criti- 
cism being delivered on the way it has been carried out. Such criticism may, how- 
ever, lose much of its value unless ample time has been set aside before the com- 
mencement of an exercise to enable its idea and object being thoroughly discussed 
and explained to the cadets. 

Special classes. — Signaling should receive encouragement as being possibly of value 
in the future to the Territorial force. 

It is not considered desu-able that special classes should be formed during camp for 
the training of cyclists and scouts, as cadets so employed would miss a great deal of 
valuable instruction with the company. The employment and training as scouts of 
cadets specially selected for their aptitude may be left to the discretion of battalion 
commanders. 

Special lectures. — Advantage should be taken of the gathering of cadets in camp to 
obtain the services of carefully selected officers of the Regular Army to lecture on 
subjects of the following nature: (a) Objects of the Officers Training Corps; (6) mili- 
tary forces of the Empire; (c) national duty; (d) the art of command; (e) discipline, 
loyalty, and example. 

Reports. — As soon after the break-up of camp as convenient commandants are re- 
quested to forward to the director of military training a report giving information on 
the following subjects: (a) Scale of parades and details of work done; (6) his opinion 
as regards the general efficiency of the cadet; (c) weak points in the system of instruc- 
tion which the training in camp has brought to light; (d) his recommendations as to 
the points to which special attention should be paid during the following 12 months; (e) 
any points connected with the administrative arrangements made for the camp; (/) 
the state of efficiency of the sergeant instructors; (g) any other points which he con- 
siders it desirable to bring to notice. 

A report by the senior medical officer should be attached to the above, dealing with 
all matters concerning the health of the cadets. 

Equipment and clothing. — Officers commanding contingents are res]>onsible for the 
provision of the following articles of equipment and clothing for cadets attending the 
annual camps: 

(o) For each tent — messing: Two dishes; 1 carving knife and fork; 1 salt cellar 
(enamel); 1 pepper pot (enamel); 1 mustard pot (enamel); 1 can for mineral water; 
1 bag for carrying bread; 1 A-entilated box for reception of food; utensils for carrying 
butter, jam, etc. Furniture and cleaning materials: One looking-glass; 1 No. — board 
for insertion in ground; 4 boot brashes; 2 tins of dubbin; 1 oil can and tow for clean- 
ing rifles; 1 tent hand brush; cleaning materials for uniforms; dusters, swabs, and 
tea cloths. The above articles should be carried separately in two extra kit bags. 

(6) For each cadet— messing: Two plates (large and small); 1 mug (enameled); 1 
knife, fork, and spoon. Clothing: One complete uniform (including great coat); 1 
second imiform or plain clothes; 2 pairs of boots (black); 2 flannel shirts; 4 pairs 
socks, plain woolen; 1 flannel sleeping suit; 2 towels; 1 brush and comb, toothbrush; 
1 soap; 1 kit bag of military pattern, clearly labeled with name of owner and school; 
1 bed rope (cord 12 feet long). 

Ammunition. — Officers commanding contingents should take to camp blank ammu- 
nition at the rate of not le.s than 60 rounds per cadet. They will be responsible for 
the collection and care of their own empty cases. 

Infectious diseases. — At least 14 days before the commencement of cam]), officers 
commanding contingents will notify the camp senior medical officer, through the 
camp secretary, of all cases of infectious diseases which have occurred at the school 
during the preceding fortnight. 



24 THE OFFICEES TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN, 

This report will be accompanied by a letter from the school msdical officer, who is 
requested to give full details of the disease and precautions taken, and to state defi- 
nitely his opinion as to the coiirse to be pursued as regards the attendance of the 
cadets at camp. 

The camp senior medical officer will give full consideration to this report and the 
views expressed therein and decide what cadets, if any, should be debarred from 
attending camp, and inform the officer commanding the contingent of his decision. 

The name and address of the senior medical officer appointed to the camp will be 
forwarded early by the War Office to the camp secretary, who will notify all contin- 
gents concerned. 

An Outline of the Standard or Training to Which it is Desirable That T'on- 
TiNGENTS Should Attain Before Reaching Camp. 

It is recognized that all contingents have not equal opportunities for instruction, 
but it is hoped that by systematic and progressive methods of training the difficul- 
ties, due to varying circumstances, may be, to a large extent, overcome. 

It is by no means intended that officers commanding contingents should limit 
their instruction to the subjects mentioned in the following pages, Dut it is hoped 
that contingents will have at least a thorough working knowledge of those subjects. 

N. B. — The points referred to in this appendix should be studied in connection 
with the remarks contained in the periodical reports on the examination for certi- 
ficates A and B. 

A. officers. 

All officers: 

1. Should ha^•e a thorough knowledge of company and squad drill. 

2. Should know the organization of a battalion, company, and section. 

3. Should understand what is meant by march discipline. 

4. Should understand what is meant by scouting. 

5. Should clearly grasp the general principles of attack and defense, and be able 
to lead a company in attack and defense. 

6. Should understand the general principles governing the employment of outposts, 
and be capable of directing a company on outpost, whether acting alone or in con- 
junction with other companies. 

7. Should understand the general principles governing the employment of advanced 
guards, rear guards, and flank guards, and be able to lead a company employed in 
any of those capacities. 

Note. — When instructing, officers should remember that the simplest orders and 
instructions are the best. Company training should not be sacrificed to spectacular 
field days. 

Stress should be laid on, and continual practice given in, fire direction, fire con- 
trol, and fire discipline, and it should be remembered that fire and maneuver must 
be taught together. 

B. section commanders. 

8. (a) Section commanders and all other noncommissioned officers should have a 
thorough knowledge of company and squad drill; (b) all noncommissioned officers 
should know the organization of a company and section ; (c) all noncommissioned offi- 
cers should know what is meant by march discipline; (d) section commanders should 
be trainetl by continual practice to appreciate the meaning of fire direction, fire con- 
trol, and fire discipline. Every opportunity should be given them to handle their 
sections, and they must receive individual instruction as to the manner in which they 
should give verbal orders or instructions to their squad and patrol commanders or to 
individual men. 

9. (a) They should understand the methods of extending and closing, and should 
know the correct words of command as laid down in "Infantry training"; (b) they 
should be acquainted with all signals and whistle blasts; (c) they should be taught 
to appreciate the importance of cover, and be instructed as to how best to take advan- 
tage of it when firing; (d) it should be impressed upon them that the unit of fire will 
usually be the section or squad; (e) in connection with scouting it should be made 
clear to section commanders, as to all noncommissioned officers, that whether they 
are employed in command of a scouting party or of a patrol, their primary duty will 
be to obtain information. They should be taught the duties of scouts as laid down 
in "Infantry training," stress being laid on the transmission of information, as well 
as on its acquisition. 

10. (a) The general principles which govern attack and defense should be made 
■clear to section commanders by lectures or otherwise; (b) the reason why Infantry 
adopt different formations in different circumstances should be explained to them, 



THE OFFICERS TRAINING CORPS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 25 

and they should know what the usual formations are; (c) they should clearly under- 
stand their responsibility as section commanders with regard to maintenance of direc- 
tion (in the attack), fire control and fire discipline, cooperation with the other portions 
of their own company or with other companies with particular reference to covering 
and supporting fire, the intelligent use of cover, and intercommunication; (d) in the 
attack all attempts to dash wildly against the enemy, before fire superiority has been 
gained, must be stopped. 

11. (a) Section commanders should be made to understand the object of outposta 
and how that object can best be attained; (b) they should know the way in which a 
company on outpost is usually distributed; (c) they should know the object of and how 
to handle the covering troops sent out to cover the posting of the pickets; (d) they 
should know the duties of a picket commander and be able to post and tell off a picket; 
(e) they should know the duties of areconnoitering patrol sent out from the picket and 
be able to lead one. They should be able to post a sentry and know what his duties are. 

12. (a) Section commanders should know the reason why a force on the move is 
always covered by protective troops, what terms are applied to these protective bodies, 
and what their respective functions are; (b) they should know the distribution of a 
company when employed on advanced, flank, or rear guards; (c) they should be able 
to appreciate the importance of keeping up communication between the component 
parts of a protecting company and between that company and the main body; (d) they 
should understand the use of connecting files. 

C. RANK AND FILE. 

13. (a) All cadets should have a thorough knowledge of the organization of a section 
and a company; (6) the importance of march discipline should be impressed on all 
ranks, and should be enforced at all times until it becomes second nature to all cadets; 
(c) bearing in mind the object of the Oflicers' Training Corps, all ranks, and not only 
section commanders and candidates for certificate A, should be given opportunity of 
handling small parties of men. 

14. (a) It should be impressed upon all cadets that the unit of fire is usually the 
section or squad, and that, therefore, they must primarily look to the section or squad 
commander for control. It should be brought home to them, however, that in action 
the control of even a section may become a matter of great difficulty, and therefore 
when control is lacking it is their duty to act on their own responsibility; (b) cadets 
should understand the meaning of fire control and fire discipline. Briefly, the senior 
officer or noncommissioned officer directs the fire, the subordinate commanders control 
it in accordance with his instructions, and the implicit obedience to these orders for 
direction by men is fire discipline. Fire direction includes all such points as the 
objective, range, rate, and nature of fire. 

15. (a) Attack: Only practice in the field will accustom the rank and file to their 
role in attack and defense; (6) in early instruction the attack should be divided into 
stages, and every stage should be carefully criticized before a fresh one is commenced — 
i. e., a commander should not pass on to a second stage until he is sure that every mis- 
take has been pointed out and the reason for the criticism understood. Finally, when 
every stage has been gone through in this manner, the attack can be carried out once 
more, straight through without any unnatural check, the faults being again criticized 
at the conclusion, (c) Defense: In defense the chief points on which stress should be 
laid for the benefit of the rank and file are fire discipline, the use of cover, and patrol 
work. 

16. Cadets can not be expected to carry out efiiciently their outpost duties unless 
the object of outposts, and generally how this object is attained, be first explained to 
them. The instructor should explain how a company detailed for outpost duty is 
usually told off. and should state what duties devolve on the various bodies into which 
it is subdi\'ided. 

With the above knowledge as a basis the cadet should find it easier to understand 
those details of outpost duty which chiefly affect him — i. e., duties of covering troops, 
the kind of sentry to be employed, the posting and relief of sentries, the duties of 
sentries, and patrol duties. 

17. By means of simple lectures cadets should be given a clear idea of why a force 
on the move is always covered by protective troops, what terms are applied to these 
protective bodies, and what their respective functions are. Unless they understand 
these things they will not be able to appreciate their own role. 

Their instruction may then be limited to the part they themselves would have to 
play when the company to which they belong is employed as an advanced guard, rear 
guard, or flank guard. 

Stress should be laid upon the responsibilities and duties of individuals employed 
as connecting files. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF 
NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



27 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

In view of the increased interest of the American people in the 
subject of national defense and the many inquiries in regard to the 
system adopted by the people of the Commonwealth of Australia 
as their solution of the question, it has seemed appropriate to furnish 
at this time a description of the Australian system. 

The following pages have been compiled from documents on file 
at the Army War College and consist of: 

Part I. Extracts selected from an article by Lieut. Col. J. G. Legge, 
C. M. G., printed in the Army Review, January, 1913. 

Part IL Notes of lectures delivered by the same at the special 
camp of instruction at Albury, New South Wales. Published 
officially in AustraUa in 1911. 

Part III. Extracts selected from the report of an Inspection of the 
Mihtary Forces of the Commonwealth of Austraha, by Gen. Sir Ian 
Hamilton, G. C. B., D. S. O., dated Hobart, Tasmania, April 24, 1914. 

Part I is a brief outline of the system. Part II is an explanation 
to the 400 Australian area and staff officers of the system inaugurated 
by the defense act, 1903-1910. Part III is a portion of a report on 
tne system by Gen. Hamilton after it had been in operation three 
years. 

This compilation gives a comprehensive review of the origin, 
development, and present status of Australian defense. Written 
by British or AustraUans, the point of view will doubtless also be 
of particular interest to Americans. 

Part L— AUSTRALIA AND THE UNIVERSAL TRAINING LAW. 

By Lieut. Col. J. G. Legge, C. M, G. 

[Reprint from the Army Review, Jan., 1913.] 

Defense act No. 15, 1909, section 125: "All male inhabitants of 
Australia (excepting those who are exempted by this act), who have 
resided therein for six months, and are British subjects, shall be 
liable to be trained, as prescribed, as foUows:" 

Thus did the AustraUan Parhament, newly assembled after a 
general election at which defense was a leading question, place on the 
statute book, without any party vote, its determination to take the 
defense of its shores seriously. 

The training prescribed was not very extensive, and, during the 
following two years of preparation for actual work, while equipment 
and clothing were being provided, the Government, stimulated by the 
advice of Lord Kitchener, obtained the passage of an amending law 
(1910) now in force, which extended the number of days required. 
Training included both the naval and military services, and it was 
provided that the Australian Navy should have first choice of men, 

29 



30 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE, 

as it was recognized that men of special occupation and trades were 
required to build up a really useful naval reserve. There are now 
over 3,000 naval senior cadets in training at the various ports, all 
specially selected, and these, on attainmg the age of 18 years, pass into 
the Militia Naval Reserve for a period of seven years' training. In 
time of war this should form a valuable reserve for the Australian 
Navy, which is, of course, manned by a regular personnel at all times. 

In any account of the military forces of Austraha it must not be 
forgotten that the difficulties are probably greater and certainly of 
a different character to those of a European country. The area is 
very great, about 3,000,000 square miles, or three-quarters that of 
Europe, its length is about 2,000 miles from east to west, and its 
coast line more than 12,000 miles. Over this area the population of 
4,500,000 is unequally distributed, the greater portion living within 
300 miles of the eastern, southern, and western coasts, and one-third 
of the total being within the five principal cities on the coast. 

The system of training now brought into force in Austraha is not 
new, but simply an extension of the old cadet and militia or2:ani7.a- 
tions to include all those who are physically fit instead of limiting 
membership to "volunteers." Much the larger part of the new con- 
ditions has already been in existence for over 20 years, and is well 
known to the general public in Australia, but in writing for those who 
are unfamiliar therewith it is advisable to commence by outlining 
briefly the older methods and organi: ations. 

PERIOD 1901-1911. 

During the first 10 years of this century, also the first 10 years of 
the federation known as the Commonwealth of Australia, the troops 
of the six States were taken over, their organi: ation, training, and 
regulations made uniform, and their equipment and clothing improved 
under Lieut. Gen. Sir E. T. H. Hutton, K. C. B., K. C. M. G., 
and, subsequently, under the orders of the Mihtary Board of Admin- 
istration. 

The defense force contained very few Regulars, their numbers being 
limited by reason of expense to those required for duties of adminis- 
tration and instruction, and to provide a first relief in the manning 
details of the defended ports. The troops were, therefore, almost 
wholly militia, and their units were maintained on a low-peace estab- 
hshment, but with full numbers of officers and sergeants. In war, 
the peace establishment of about 25,000 would have been filled up to 
50,000 by the absorption of those enlisted as reservist members of the 
rifle clubs. In round numbers, the several branches of the service 
were : 

REGULARS. 

Administrative and instructional staffs of officers, warrant and noncommis- 
sioned officers 350 

Fortress troops, Artillery and Engineers 1, 150 

Total, permanent forces 1, 500 

MiLrriA. 

Units of citizen troops, officers of the unattached list and reserve 23, 000 

RESERVES. 

Members of rifle clubs 55, 000 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 31 

The militia were trained much as the Territorials in Great Britain, 
pay being provided at the rate of 8s. per day for privates, and other 
ranks in proportion, for 16 days per annum. Complete units were 
organized in the larger centers, but elsewhere detachments raised in 
many small centers formed light horse regiments or infantry battal- 
ions. Eight days of the training were, if possible, held in the annual 
camps, the remainder being broken up into night drills, counting 
as quarter days and half days, usually Saturday afternoons. Public 
holidays were sometimes utiHzed as whole day trainings. To be 
''efficient" a militiaman had to attend the equivalent of not less than 
12 days, including musketry. 

As with the Territorials, however, difficulties arose from the nature 
of the men's employment; some could not attend the annual camps, 
othere had to resign on moving to another district, and in practice 
the officer commanding a squadron or company found his small peace 
establishment very small indeed when he came to count up only 
those having more than two years' service. In some units -Artillery 
and Engineers- an additional nine days' pay was provided during 
the last few years, for the extension of their camp training. 

The reserves in the rifle clubs had among them many who had been 
trained in the militia, but as reservists their only training was a 
short annual musketry course (compulsory) and their voluntary rifle 
club practices. 

Nor must we forget the cadets, whose numbers were seniors 12,000 
and juniors 31,000, who formed a useful feeder to the militia, senior 
cadets of 17 years of age being allowed to transfer. Arms, equip- 
ment, and ammunition were provided free, instructors paid by the 
Military Department, and a small capitation grant also made. In 
most cases, however, parents were required to assist in the provision 
of uniforms. It is probably the growth of these miniature battalions, 
and the unsatisfied desire of many poorer lads who could not join, 
that have helped to smooth the way for universal service, more 
especialljr as it was limited to senior cadet training in its first year 
of operation. 

UNIVERSAL TRAINING, 1911. 

The Australian defense act of 1903 was amended December 13, 
1909, introducing a universal liabihty to naval or military training, 
and this was extended by a further amending act December 1, 1910. 
The operation of the new statutes was proclaimed by the Governor 
General to come into force on January 1, 1911. 

ly this law all male inhabitants, resident for six months in Aus- 
tralia, must be registered under the act in January of the calendar 
year in which they attain the age of 14 years. Those who would 
nave been so liable if resident in Australia, but who arrive at a 
later date, must register six months after arrival. 

Of those compelled to register, only such as are British subjects 
are required to undergo training, and a number also of these are 
exempted for various reasons. Those liable to service must pass 
through the various trainings prescribed by the regidations for a 
period of 12 years, together with a course of prefiminary work for 



32 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



two years prior to registration. The distribution of the liability is 
as follows : 



Rank. 


Age. 


Service. 


Training. 




Years. 

n-u 

14-18 
18-26 


Years. 
2 
4 

8 


Annually: 90 hours. 




Annually: 4 whole day, 12 half day, and 24 night 


Citizen forces (militia) 


drills (quarter days).' 
Annually : In first 7 years drills equivalent to 16 whole 
days, of which at least 8 must be in camp.2 



1 Variations are permissible, provided the total remains the same. 

s Artillery and Engineers (as well as those allotted to the naval forces) must train for 25 days annually, 
of which 17 days must be in camp. In the eighth year militia are required only to attend a registration or 
muster parade. 



The peace organization and allotment of units to areas has, of 
course, been based on the future war organization of the 128,000 
militia. These will, as advised by Lord Kitchener, supply 93 bat- 
talions of Infantry, 28 regiments of Light Horse, 56 batteries of 
Field ArtiUery, and the necessary units of Artillery, Engineers, Army 
Service Corps, Army Medical Coi-ps, and departments for divisional 
troops and defended ports. 

By far the largest part of the new force is Infantry, and the terri- 
torial organization has therefore been based on the battalions. AD 
that part of Australia not exempted from the op(M-ation of the act is 
divided into areas, each of which will supply approximately equal 
numbers of militia. At present there are 92 of these, and they are 
known as battalion areas. For peace training and administration 
those arc further subdivided into two traiping areas (three in country 
districts). The contiguous battahon areas are grouped by fours into 
brigade areas, each supplying an Infantry brigade, together with a 
varying proportion of provisional or fortress troops. The Light 
Hoi-se units are raised in the territorial areas found most suitable, 
chiefly in country districts. 

The senior cadets in each battalion area are also organized in bat- 
talions, and trained under the same staff as the militia. 

The training of and administrative work in connection with the 
units of the militia and senior cadets would be too much to expect 
of the citizen officers of those units, the juniors of whom require a 
good deal of training themselves, and especially so at the present 
time when the new force is coming into existence and promotion is 
rapid. It is for this purpose that the administrative and instructional 
staff (Regular) was created in the past and largely increased during 
the last few years. 

Over 400 warrant and noncommissioned officers of this staff are 
allotted to the brigade and battahon areas as instructors. One officer 
is allotted to each brigade area as brigade major, with a junior as 
assistant, and each training area will also have eventually a Regular 
officer as area officer. Pending the supply of sufficient Regular offi- 
cer, a number of militia officere have been temporarily appointed 
area officers; they are required to give only part of their time to the 
work and are paid £150 ($750) per annum. It will be over three 
years hence before the first graduates of the Royal Military CoUege 
wiU commence to take up these positions. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 33 

The instructional staff, apart from their administrative duties in 
the areas, are required to instruct in both Li<i;ht Horse and Infantry 
training, and provision is made for technical training of the militia 
by increased personnel. in the permanent units and cadres. The 
Ko3wal Australian Field Artillery and the Royal Australian Garrison 
Artillery supply instructors to the militia artillery units, and simi- 
larly members of the regular Engineer, Army Service Corps, and 
Army Medical Corps cadres for corresponding units. 

I propose now to examine separately the three stages of training 
required of boys and young men in Australia. Their objects were, 
first, in the junior cadets to systematize and improve the school train- 
ing, between the ages of 12 and 14 years, and so produce a better 
physical development, especially in the city-bred boys; secondly, 
between 14 and 18 years, while still continuing the physical develop- 
ment, to commence a general military training in the senior cadets, 
that should be useful and in part a substitute for recruit instruction; 
and, thirdly, between 18 and 25 years, to tram, organize, and discipline 
a force with real fighting value. 

JUNIOR CADETS. 

Throughout Austraha primary education is compulsory and free. 
In most of the States children must remain at school up to 14 years 
of age, and this will shortly be universal. State schools are to be 
found even m thinly populated districts, and they are attended by 
three-fourths of the children of the country. The other one-fourth 
attend "private" schools, the majority of which are maintained 
by the churches. To some extent physical traming had been con- 
ducted in most of the schools for many years, but not always in an 
efficient manner. Young as Australia is, the effect of the crowding 
of population in the large cities has commenced to show results in a 
marked physical difference between country and town lads, for one 
city alone, Sydney, is approa^hmg a population of 700,000, and Mel- 
bourne has over 500,000. The Commonwealth Government has no 
authority over education, whhh is a function of the State Govern- 
ments, but it has the power to require training for military purposes. 
Under the former voluntary system there were 30,000 cadets in the 
schools, hence the naming of this part of the scheme "Junior cadet 
traming," notwithstanding that it is only military in the sense of 
being a preparation for military work. Many of those who have to 
train will fail to "pass the doctor" when they come up for senior 
cadet training, or, later on, passing into the militia; but the cost of 
the work will not be lost, for it must have its effect also on the race. 
Both in junior and senior cadet training the medical examination is 
simply aimed at exempting from all or part of the work those boys 
who would suffer mjury thereby. 

The Commonwealth Government was prepared, if necessary, to 
carry out this training, but it was recognized that it woulJ be better 
that it should be done m the schools. Having no power to legislate 
so as to throw the duty on the schoolmasters, it was provided that 
training by them should be accepted as sufficient compliance with tl e 
act subject to inspection by Commonwealth authorities, and grants 
were made to aU schools complying therewith. All the schools are 
now conducting the training and special mihtary instructors are hold- 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 3 



34 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

ing schools of instruction, at which school-teachers can attend and 
obtain certificates of proficiency. The act requires 90 hours per year 
to be devoted to the work, mcludmg: 

(a) Physical trammg. not less than 15. minutes per day. (b) 
Marching drill (practically Infantry squad drill), and any two of the 
following subjects: (c) Miniature rifle shootmg; (d) swimming; (e) 
running exercises in organized games; (f) first aid. 

******* 

SENIOR CADETS. 

On July 1, in the year in which he attains the age of 14 years, the 
senior cadet is given his uniform and ''Record book," told off to a 
company, and allotted his arms and accoutrements. He becomes 
subject to military discipline and is made to recognize that he forms 
part of his country's military system. The first training commenced 
on July 1, 1911. 

Companies are 120 strong, with three officers, five sergeants, and 
four coiporals, but may be of less strength in smaller localities. All 
the companies in a battalion area form one battalion, however many 
there may be, the training being essentially "company" and not 
'''battahon" m its character, and the battalion only appearmg as a 
whole on a few ceremonial occasions, w^hen it may temporarily be 
formed as two. The battalion staff is consequently limited to a com- 
manding officer and adjutant. Senior cadets stiU attending school 
may be formed in special companies at their schools, instead of joining 
those in their residential area. This is general in the case of grammar 
schools, and the battalions of the areas in which they are situated are 
often very large. As, however, the battalions are training, not fighting 
units, no harm is done, and the system has many obvious advantages. 
* f* * * * * * 

TRANSFER TO THE MILITIA. 

Toward the end of the senior cadet's fourth year of training, i. e., 
in the year in which he reaches 18 years of age, he will be brought 
before the medical officer of the training area, and, after examination, 
be classified as either (1) fit, (2) conditionally fit, (3) temporarily 
unfit, (4) unfit, or (5) not substantially of European origin or 
descent.^ 



THE MILITIA. 

Until July 1, 1912, service in the militia of Austraha was voluntary, 
the period of engagement three years, with the right of resignation 
under certam conditions; "efficiency" depended upon attendance 
at a minimum number of parades, equal to 12 whole days; the only 
penalty for nonefficiency was discharge, and commissions were granted 
to those in or outside of the force by selection, without any previous 
qualification. 

¥rhLle the old mihtia units are continuing in existence, much in 
form as before, and new units created, which will include many of the 

« Class (5) and those who have religious objections are to be allotted to noncombatants' duties as far as 
possible. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 35 

old members, a radical alteration in their constitution has been 
effected. Old members will not ordinarilly be reengaged after com- 
pletion of their current engagement; noncommissioned officers may 
reengage; all new members will come in annually at one date, July 1, 
and, when their 8 years' service is complete, will go out together on 
June 30; for the first 7 years all must train not less than 16 whole 
days (some more), and, further, obtain a real classification of ''effi- 
cient " at the annual test, or suffer the penalty of longer service, and 
all promotions are to be from the ranks and based on merit. 

On July 1, 1912, 19,000 senior cadets of the 1894 class became liable 
to training in the militia, and larger numbers may be expected in 
future years. Their absorption m the new organization and the de- 
velopment of the latter will be detailed later. 

I'he length of training required in the militia is, annually, 16 whole 
days or their equivalent in shorter parades, but not less than 8 whole 
days must be attended in the annual camps or maneuvers. For 
Artillery and Engineer services the liability is more extended, being 
25 whole days, of which not less than 17 must be continuous training. 
As in the senior cadets, additional parades are also provided for, and 
any militiaman absent without leave from a statutory parade can 
only become efiicient by attending two additional voluntary parades. 
Eliiciency, subject to attendance at the required minimum of parades, 
is again determined annually by a practical test. 

Musketry, on the same general lines as in the British Army, is 
carried out on Saturday afternoons during the year, nearly every 
training locality having'rifle ranges available within a few miles. 

In the mounted services the question of horses is of interest. The 
Light Horse include only those who can provide horses for themselves, 
and if they cease to comply they are transferred to dismounted units. 
The Field Artillery are supplied with Government horses obtained 
and maintained especially for the purpose. During the last two 
years nearly 2,000 horses were purchased, and the establishment will 
in future be increased by about 300 per annum, apart from replace- 
ments of cast horses. When not required by the militia batteries, 
these are available for the work of schools of instruction or other 
mounted units. For arms other than I^ight Horse and Field Artillery 
horses are hired when required. So far there has been no dilhculty 
about obtaining a suitable type, for Australia has a stock of 2,250,000 
horses of all classes; but it is proposed in the future to utilize the 
cast mares for breeding purposes at Government establishments. 
Possibly, also, a large Government breeding station will be estab- 
lished in the northern territory. 



CONCLUSION. 

Prior to the year 1909 the feeling had been steadily growing in 
Australia that 25,000 militia were insu ffciont, even for local defense 
alone. The Federal Government, however, notwithstanding a large 
and expanding revenue, had so many heavy outgoings, all absolutely 
necessary in the expansion of a young country, that it was impossible 
to expand the military forces on the same lines as then in force. To 
expand the numbers to 120,000 would have cost at least £3,500,000 



36 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

annually, even if it were possible to obtain the numbers under the 
old conditions by voluntary enlistment. Nor would the increased 
numbers have been productive of greater eillciency. Soldiering would 
still have ope»ated pretty often to the disadvantage of the patriotic 
soldier in respect to obtaining employment, men would have lost their 
jobs for going to camp even oftener than they did in the past, resig- 
nation would probably have come oftener, and the average length of 
service would have been less. Altogether, the result would not have 
been worth the expense. 

lo wipe out the citizen forces, which cost so much for the result 
attained, and increase the Regular forces to the new war establish- 
ment would certainly have been possible, and would have given a very 
good fighting machine, but the spirit of democracy would have 
strongly objected, and the probable cost, nearly £15,000,000, ruled 
such a scheme out at once. 

Between these two extremes the new system has been evolved. 
The permanent troops have been increased considerably, they will 
furnish the administrators and instructors and a first relief for the 
fighting units in the forts, and their ofhcers will be highly trained 
men from the Koyal Military College. 

H: ***** * 

Summing it all up, those who have had the responsibilty of intro- 
ducing the operation of an unfamiliar system were prepared for 
greater diiflciilties, and "the result has been, on the whole, quite as 
good as could be hoped for the first year. F-rom now on new factors 
will operate. 1 hose rejected by the medical ohxer will not be glad of 
their exemption, poor lads, and that will tend to create the converse 
sentiment. Ihose who are found to be criminals or bad characters 
will be brought before the magistrates for an order (under the act) 
prohibiting them from military service. Ihose who can not produce 
a record book with a "clean" service sheet will be debarred from any 
service under the Commonwealth Government. Ihe public-service 
commissioner akeady requires its production. Later on we shall find 
private employers also realizing that good soldiers are also the best 
servants, and a good record book becoming a distinct recommendation 
for employment. Lastly, dormant though it may be in appearance, 
and obscured by the petty worries of earning a crust, patriotism is 
not by any means dead in Australia, and when Sydney, the oldest of 
the Australian cities, saw the fu'st fruits of universal training, 19,000 
senior cadets with only six months' training, all raised in the one city 
only, and marching steadily past the Governor General, the numbers, 
larger than ever seen there on parade before, the uniformity and 
the steadiness of the battalions woke the people up and they were 
proud of their sons. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 37 

Part II. UNIVERSAL TRAINING IN THE NAVAL OR MILITARY 
FORCES OF THE AUSTRALIAN COMMONWEALTH. 

[Notes of lectures delivered by the quatermaster general (Lieut. Col. J. G. Legge, C. M. G.) at the Special 
Camp of Instruction at Albury. Published officially in Australia in 1911.'] 

CONTENTS. 

I. — Preface — Extracts from a speech by the minister of defense. 

II.— Notes of lectures.- — Introductory — The proposed organization — Allotment of 
staff — Duties of staff — The Military College — Citizen's liability to naval or military 
training — Exemptions from training — Registration — Inspection and medical examina- 
tion — Record book — Numbers — Allotment to arms — Senior cadets: Organization, train- 
ing, leave, absence, transfers, schools, evasion of service, noncommissioned ofhrces, 
officers, uniform, equipment, financial considerations, discipline — Junior cadets — 
Existing citizen forces — The new citizen forces — Reserves — Higher training — War. 

I. PREFACE. 

These lectures were intended to explain the new system of universal 
training and the practical administration of its provisions to the 400 
area officers and staff instructors, who are moro concerned than any 
others with the details of the amended defense act. 

The lectures were chiefly explanations of the reasons for the regu- 
lations and instructions about to be issued and advice as to the best 
method of carrying them out in practice. They are not to be taken 
or quoted as authorities. For such, the actual sections of the act, 
regulations, or orders of the military board must be strictly followed. 
The minister for defense has ordered that these notes be printed and 
published for the use of other members of the defense force. 

J. G. Legge, Lieutenant Colonel. 

Extracts from a Speech by the Minister for Defense. 

The minister for defense. Senator G. F. Pearce, visited the training 
camp at Albury on two occasions ; and on his last visit was welcomed 
by a large assembly of citizens. In the course of his speech the 
minister said : 

Australia, all will admit, is a country worth having. Yet it is the only continent 
owned by one people and has never been stained by bloodshed in war. If we mark 
on a map of the world all the countries stained with blood. Australia will be the only 
white spot. It has been our privilege singularly among all the peoples of the world 
that we have been exempt from the horrors of war. What guaranty is there that this 
will continue? 

Australians are a peaceful business people who do not want war; but can we get 
others to think the same? There are nations not decadent who have defeated some 
of the so-called great powers of the world. History teaches that every country that 
becomes a conqueror grows land hungry and ambitious, and so Australia must prepare. 

While we believe the teaching of Christianity, that arbitration is the proper means 
of settling disputes, we must remember that the two parties must first agree to arbi- 
trate. Are we prepared to arbitrate on a white Australia? Of course not. If, then, 
we are not prepared to arbitrate, the only logical alternative is to be prepared for war. 

Having decided this, we must have the best system of defense, the best training it 
is possible to get. Our army of defense must not be simply the aggregation of an 
armed mob, but men fit to stand up against any troops that may come along. 

As regards the cost of the scheme, this system of national insurance is but a mere 
bagatelle compared with the loss that would be caused by an aggressive cruiser coming 

1 Since these lectures were published in 1911, a few alterations have taken place in numbers, hours of 
drill, and in some minor details. Attention has been called in footnotes to the more important of these 
changes; they do not, however, affect the value of the lectures as an exposition of the system of universal 
training now adopted in Australia and of the sfjirit and principles on which it is based.— Ed. 



38 THE AUSTKALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

to these shores. And. further, the horrors of war can not be counted in pounds, 
shillings, and pence. If we are going to have a defense scheme worth having, we must 
have the best, and be prepared to pay for it. 

Australia has had differences of opinion, but this camp typifies Australia actually 
united. The area officers will on Thursday be dispersed to all parts of Australia, and 
in January the young men will record their names for military service and will realize 
that there is something more serious in life than cricket and football. It will enable 
them to realize that citizenship carries with it not only privileges but responsibilities. 

Organization in business, or in any other sphere of human acti\'ity, is the secret of 
success. In this defense scheme we have a means of organizing the nation. I appeal 
to you as parents and citizens of Australia to use your influence and give your best 
assistance in making our scheme a success. 

II. NOTES OF LECTURES ON UNIVERSAL TRAINING. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. The defense act, 1903, provided for both naval and mihtary 
forces, and under it the forces raised in the several States were con- 
solidated into Commonwealth forces. The amending defense act, 
1904, transferred most of the powers of the general officer com- 
manding the military forces to a newly constituted body, called the 
Military Board, organized on the same lines as the Army Council 
in Great Britain. The two acts are known as the defense act, 
1903-1904. 

2. It appeared to the Hon. (now Sir) Thos. Ewing, minister for 
defense, in the year 1908, that the present system of defense did not 
give Australia sufficient numbers in its citizen forces in proportion 
to the expenditure involved, that the standard of trainmg was very 
unequal, and that an excessive proportion of the troops consisted of 
men of very short service, who resigned before obtaining a sufficient 
standard of proficiency. For these reasons, among others, an amend- 
ing bill was prepared, with the object of introducing universal train- 
ing, which, however, went no further, owing to a change of 
Government. 

3. In 1909 Senator Pearcs prepared a further scheme with the 
same object, which was again irustrated by another change of 
Government. 

4. During the same year the Hon. J. Cook introduced an amending 
biU, varying somewhat from the preceding proposals, which became 
the defense act, 1909. This, when consolidated with the former 
statutes, is known as the defense act, 1903-1909. 

5. By this act the principle of universal liability to be trained in 
the defense force in time of peace was made law for the first time in 
any English-speaking community. 

6. The act of 1909 prescribed senior cadet training from 14 to 18 
years, equivalent in duration to 16 whole days annually, but divided 
into convenient parades throughout the year, and adult training in 
the citizen forces from 18 to 20 years, equal to 16 days annually, of 
which 8 must be m camp. The existing citizen forces were to be 
separately maintained, as at present. 

7. At the end of 1909 and begmnmg of 1910 Field Marshal Lord 
Kitchener visited Australia on the invitation of the Government to 
report on the defenses of Australia. His recommendations were made 
public in the form of a memorandum, in which he advises that 
universal training should be extended up to the twenty-sixth year. 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 39 

8. A further change of Government having taken place early in 
1910, Senator Pearce, the present minister for defense, introduced a 
second bill, which was passed by Parliament before the end of the 
year. This defense act, 1910, is for the purpose of amending the 
previous acts, and together with them forms the defense act, 1903- 
1910. It adopted in a strengthened form the recommendations of 
Lord Kitchener. 

9. The operation of the clauses requiring universal training was 
proclaimed by the Governor General (Gazette of 28th September, 
1910) to commence on 1st January, 1911. 

10. The comparative cost of the varioas systems may be obtained 
by dividing the maximum number proposed to be in training at the 
one period into the maximum annual expenditure for that period. 
Calculated thus, the average cost per annum per adult soldier^in 
training in organized units is: 

Under the system hitherto in force £32 

Sir T. Ewing's scheme 7 

Senator Pearce's first scheme 22 

Hon. J. Cook's scheme 26 

Lord Kitchener's proposal 16 

Senator Pearce's proposals, now being carried out 17 

It may be mentioned that the annual cost of £7 d^i not include 
any pay for the compulsory periods of training. 

The Proposed Organization. 

11. The population of Australia in 1911 is about 4^ millions, of 
whom there are, on the basis of the last census, 188,000 males of 14 
years and under 18 years and 295,000 males of 18 years and under 
25 years. 

Many of these will be found in districts too thinly populated to 
admit of training without excessive expenditure, or living at too 
great a distance from the several training places. A large number 
also will be found medically unfit for training. 

Upon the figures at present available it is estimated that we shall 
have in training, when the scheme is in full operation, 100,000 senior 
cadets and 112,000 citizen soldiers. 

12. An army is organized by considering the numbers available, 
the length of service laid down by law, and the proportion of the 
various arms required. 

The proposed organization for Australia, varying only a little from 
that of Lord Kitchener, as found necessary on closer examination of 
the numbers available, includes 93 battalions of Infantry, 28 regi- 
ments of Light Horse, and 56 batteries of Field Artillery, and a due 
proportion of Engineers, Army Service Corps, Army Medical Corps, 
troops for forts, and other services. 

13. By far the largest part of any army is Infantry, and the terri- 
torial organization of Australia is therefore based upon the Infantry 
units. 

All that part of the Commonwealth not exempted by proclamation 
from the operation of the act is divided into areas containing approxi- 
mately equal populations in the portions in which training can be 
carried out. There are 93 of these, and they are laiown as battalion 
areas. 



40 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OP NATIONAL DEFENSE, 



Each will contain a complete battalion of Infantry, and also 
larger or smaller numbers of one or more other arms of the service. 
For convenience in training and administration the battalion areas 
will each be divided into two or three traming areas. 

The battalion areas are also grouped by fours into brigade areas, 
each supplying an Infantry brigade of four battalions and a staff 
and a pro])ortion of troops of other arms. The Light Horse regi- 
ments will be formed into brigades like the Infantry, but such brigades 
are not coterminous with the brigade areas. The other arms will 
be available for use with brigades during maneuvers and for allot- 
ment as divisional troops when the higher organization of divisions 
is considered necessary. 

Each battalion area will furnish for training in the Infantry bat- 
talion about 922 adults of 18 years and under 25 years, with a quota 
of about 75 toward the Engineers, A. A. S. C, and A. A. M. C, 
roughly, 1,000, in all. It wUl, in addition, as stated above, supply 
Light Horse units in some cases and also troops for forts. 

14. The new training will be brought into operation as shown in 
the diagram below: 



First stage (January to Second stage (July, 1911, 
June, 1911). • to June, 1912), 



Existing junior and senior 
cadet forces continue, 
but all equipment to be 
returned before 30th 
June, 1911. 

Registration, inspection, 
and medical examina- 
tion of lads whose 14th, 
15th, letii, or 17th birth- 
days occur in vear 1911. 



Old junior and senior 
cadet forces cease on 
30th June, 1911. 



Registration, etc., of 
lads whose 14th birth- 
day occurs in year 
1912. 

New junior cadet train- 
ing begins in schools, 
etc., from 1st July, 
1911. 

Clothing, equipment, 
and training of new 
senior cadet forces, es- 
timated 100,000. 



Third stage (July, 1912, j Fourth stage (after July, 
to June, 1913). 1913, for each year). 



Registration, etc., of 
lads whose 14th birth- 
day occurs in year 
1913. 



Registration, etc., of lads 
whose 14th birthday 
occiurs in 1914 and fol- 
lowing years. 



Continuation of new senior cadet force, 100,000. 



Clothing, equipment, 
and training of re- 
cruits, 20,000 from sen- 
ior cadets for nevy citi- 
zen forces. 



Continuation of new citi- 
zen forces, increasing 
each year by (esti- 
mated) 20,000. 



The creation of the units under the new organiza- 
tion will take place on a date to be notified later, dur- 
ing this period. 



During this transition the greatest care must be taken by members 
of every part of the defense force to prevent any estrangement or 
friction between the several parts. It must be recognized that, 

f)ending the creation of the units of the new organization, clear-cut 
ines of demarcation in duties and responsibilities are in many cases 
impossible, and, if greater consideration is given to the rights of 
Australia and less to fancied grievances and rights of individuals, 
all parts of the machine will worlj in harmony. The new scheme is 
much bigger in its numbers, and promotion wiU be open and rapid, 
but Australia needs for such promotion the best talents that can be 
got, and fancied rights, based on perfunctory attendances at so 
many days' parades or other formal seniority, must not be allowed 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 41 

•to count as a substitute for practical military efficiency and ability 
to command troops in the field. ^ 

Allotment of Staff. 

15. The staff provided for in this year's appropriation by Parlia- 
ment for the territorial work of the new system and instructional 
work with existing troops, is as follows: 

Officers of the administrational and instructional staff ^ 58 

Area officers (temporary) 224 

Staff instructors (warrant and noncommissioned officers of the 

instructional staff ^ 425 

16. It is proposed, as a general rule, to detail two officers of the 
administrational and instructional staff to each brigade area, one as 
brigade major the other as his assistant. 

To each training area there will be one area officer (temporary), 
appointed from the citizen forces. 

in each brigade area one staff instructor will be allotted for brigade 
work to the brigade major. 

In each training area one staff instructor will be allotted for duty 
with the area officer. 

To each regimental headquarters of existing units one staff in- 
structor will be allotted for duty (two in the case of large units). 

The remainder of the staff instructors will be divided among the 
brigade areas and will be detailed for duty, as required, by brigade 
majors. 

The work of adjutants of existing units and of new senior bat- 
talions will be performed by area officers as detailed from time to 
time by commandants. 

17. There will in future be no distinction between the staff allotted 
to the instruction of troops and cadets, and all staff officers, area 
officers, and staff instructors will be expected in the future to be 
equally capable of Light Horse or Infantry training. Some excep- 
tions may be permitted in fa^or of older members of the instructioned 
staff who are not suitable for mounted work. 

It is proposed, in the future, not to provide special members of 
the instructional staff for technical arms, but to have additional 
officers and noncommissioned officers in the permanent troops, so that 
such may be detailed for instructional duty as required. 

Duties of Staff. 

18. The instructional staff and area officers are required to per- 
form duty either with Light Horse, Infantry, or senior cadet units. 

The Light Horse and Infantry are the "Line regiments" of the 
Australian Army. The instructional staff will also be required to 
instruct in mounted or loot drill for such services as Engineers, 
Army Service Corps, and Army Medical Corps. 

19. The brigade major will represent the commandant in his 
brigade area, and orders issued by him will be considered as "by 
order" of the commandant. This system must hold good until the 
creation of the units of the new organization, and is only of a tem- 
porary character. 

1 The actual number of the first transfer to the militia in July, 1912, was 19,000. 

2 There are still some vacancies unfilled in these positions, to which appointments will shortly be made. 



42 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The brigade major will be responsible for the instruction of offi- 
cers of the existing citizen forces, will conduct local schools of instruc- 
tion, supervise the work of area officers, instruct them in their du- 
ties, advise and help them in difficulties, detail the instructors under 
his orders as required to perform the duties required with all units m 
the brigade area, bearing in mind the necessity of maintaining the 
standard of training in existing militia units. 

Although these units will not have the exclusive use of as many- 
members of the staff as before, it is to be borne in mind that the 
number of the staff instructors is doubled, and that when required 
the number available for any extra pressure of work with any unit 
is much larger than before. 

The arrangements for the allotment of staff instructors must be 
varied as necessitated by the various stages outhned in paragraph 
14, and the exigencies of the service will require at one time all the 
personnel available to be at the disposal of militia units, at another 
for training the new recruits, at another to help m registration and 
medical examination of senior cadets. Again, a staff instructor al- 
lotted to a militia unit in a country town must help with senior 
cadets there, and, vice versa, one allotted to duty with an area officer 
must help with any local unit of the existing forces. In all this the 
Miltary Board relies very much on the patriotic assistance of com- 
manding officers while tlie period of transition is in progress. 

The assistant brigade major will be unckn- the orders of the 
brigade major, will perform his duties in his absence, and may be 
required to fill the place of an area officer during a vacancy. 

20. Area officers' duties vary somewhat, both in kind and extent, 
as shown by the following conditions: 

(a) Some areas are in one locality only, others contain several lo- 
calities and much country, for which annual exemptions must be 
given at first. The numbers in cit}^ areas tire much larger than in 
country areas, but this is compensated by the absence of time lost 
in travehng. (b) Their work at first is mainly organization and 
registration; later, the clothing, arming, and equipment of the new 
senior cadets, and the duties of adjutant of some unit, then assisting 
in the training of senior cadets, afterwards of recruits for the citizen 
forces, and finally the assumption of the varied duties under the full 
operation of the new scheme, (c) While the number and variety of 
the duties wiU increase during the first three years by a succession of 
steps, each of the duties first taken in hand will have become easier 
as the novelty has worn off. 

In the duties of area officers, as in other cases, during the transi- 
tion period all must be prepared to help the scheme in any way pos- 
sible. Exactly defined duties are not possible, and efforts limited 
by close-drawn bounds can not be permitted. Three years hence 
wiU be time enough to liiy down the relative functions with more 
detail. 

21. Experience has shown that citizen officers, with but limited 
leisure from their ordinary vocations, feel the burden of administra- 
tive duties rather than those of a combatant character, wliich afford 
sufficient chnnge of scene and interest to become interesting. It is 
these administrative duties of which area officers are expected to 
relieve citizen officers in addition to their own special work of organi- 
zation. When the administrative work of the citizen forces is simi- 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 43 

lar to that required in war as in camps of training then the citizen 
officers must be accustomed to tlie work; but on all other occasions 
the ordinary peace routine connected with clotfiing, equipment, re- 
cruit drill, transfers, pay, etc., can well be taken off their shoulders. 
But it must not be imagined that area officers will have nothing 
but administrative work. As adjutants they will be called on to do 
their share of all training, and each for his own area must assist all 
units therein in their work and supervise the recruit drill. 

22. With the new units, as they come into being, and whatever 
arm they belong to, the members will go to the area officer for all 
clothing, arms, equipment, pay, etc. He will always be there for 
them to apply to for advice; he wiU know all about their conditions 
of employment, the time most suitable for calling parades without 
unduly interfering with ordinary avocations; and above all he will 
endeavor to enlist the sympathy and help of the older men of the area 
and to create that spirit of rivalry in work and sport between train- 
ing and battahon areas which is so productive of strenuous effort in 
Australia. 

23. The numbers with which area officers will have to work will 
probably be : 

Junior cadets 180-350 

Senior cadets 300-550 

Adult recruits 70-120 

The duties of area officers with regard to junior cadets is dealt with 
in paragraph 92. 

24. The transfer of area officers is not to be encouraged, more 
especially in view of the importance of their acquiring a thorough 
knowledge of local conditions in their areas. 

Area officers appointed in future will be required either before or 
within six months to pass schools in Light Horse and Infantry 
training and musketry of six weeks' duration. 

25. The staff instructors (warrant or noncommissioned officers) 
must not only diill recruits of the citizen forces but cadets also. 
They must be well up in such subjects as are required for the instruc- 
tion of junior officers and the noncommissioned officers of the citizen 
forces. 

Every staff instructor should b-^ equally capable of instructing in 
Light Horse or Infantry drill and tactics. The drill of both is simple, 
and the tactics are practically the same. 

All staff instructors are required to carry out the administrative 
work of the units or areas to which they are allotted. This will 
naturally be heaviest during the transition period. Notwithstanding, 
however, th'nr being told off to some particular post, th-y are, never- 
thelrss, available for any duty under the direction of the brigade 
major. 

For the assistance of the ar -a officers th" staff instiuctors trained 
at Albury will as far as possible b:^ s "lected. as they have had more 
opportunity for instruction in details of the scheme. All staff instruc- 
tors are expected to make themselves familiar with it. 



44 THE AUSTBALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The Military College.' 

26. Lord Kitchener advised the formation of a college to train 
p^^rmanent officers as instructors of the citizen forces. The first 
cours-^ will commence shortly; it will probably last four years, and 
b? followed by a tour of duty in England or India, and finally a 
probationary year at ar^^a work. 

It will th ^r. for3 b3 6 years b 'fore any of these officers of the new 
Staff Corps can b3 count :^d on for duty, and at least 15 years before 
all the area officers are suppli'^d from it. 

In its organization th^ Staff College is in reality the most demo- 
cratic institution. The competitive examination is within the 
capacity of good pupils from a State school, it is op'^n to all, and the 
succ^^ssful candidates pay no fees, but, on the other hand, are taught 
a profession, fed, cloth d, and paid at the same time, and finally 
obtain a permanent appointment on the staff. 

Citizen's Liability to Training. 

(See Pt. XU, sees. 125-137, and Pt. XIV, sees. 142-146, of the defense aet.) 

27. The d;efense act, 1909, came into force on 1st January, 1911' 
and from that date all mah inhabitants of Australia (excepting those 
exempted), who have resided therein for 6 months, are required to 
regist r in the month of January of the year in which they attain the 
age of 14 years (also 15, 16, and 17 years in the first yeai of the act, 
1911). Those of th^ above who are British subjects are also required 
to b^ trained. 

The Uability is as follows (s' c. 131. D. A.) : 

Those born in 1803 and earlier are exempt from training except in time of war. 

Those born in 1894 must register in January, 1911, train one year in senior cadets, 
and then be trained in the citizen forces until June 30, 1920. 

Those born in 1895 must register in January, 1911, train two years in senior cadets, 
and then be trained in the citizen forces until June 30, 1921. 

Those born in 1896 must register in January, 1911, train three years in senior cadets, 
and then be trained in the citizen forces until June 30, 1922. 

Those born in 1897 must register in January, 1911, train four years in senior cadets, 
and then be trained in the citizen forces until June 30, 1923. 

Tliose born in 1838 must train one year in junior cadets, 1911-12, register in January, 
1912, train four vears in senior cadets, and then be trained in the citizen forces until 
June 30, 1924. 

Those born in 1899 must train two years in junior cadets, 1911-1913, register in 
January, 1913, train four years in senior cadets, and then be trained in the citizen 
forces until June 30, 1925; and so on, for succeeding years. 

The length of training in each part is set out under its appropriate 
heading. 

Exemptions prom Training. 

(See Pt. XIII, sees. 138-141, of the defense act.) 

28. A permanent ex^^mption from training will be issued to those 
who hare b^en certified by th^ examining medical officers as "unfit" 
for training at any tim^ during th ir liability. Registered persons 
who ar^ not British subj ^cts will rec nve similar exemptions. 

29. Temporary exemptions will be granted, of not exceeding 12 
months' duration, but renewable from time to time, to those who are — 

» The Military College has since been opened, 27th June, 1911. — Ed-. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 45 

(a) School-teachers, qualified as instructors, or officers of cadets; 
(6) members of the permanent naval or military forces; (c) resi- 
dents in exempt areas; (d) residents in training areas who live at 
such a distance from training places that attendance would create 
hardship (for the present this will be taken as 5 miles by the nearest 
practicable route) ; (e) theological students; (/) those found by medical 
examination to be ''temporarily unfit." 

30. A permanent disquahfication for service will be entered 
against those who have been found by a court (see sec. 141, D. A.) 
to be unfit to serve by reason of bad character. 

31. Partial exemptions may be granted to — 

(a) Those not substantially of European origin or descent (sec. 
138 (1) (b), D. A.) ; exemption only applies to training in duties of a 
combatant nature. (6) Those who are forbidden by their religion 
to bear arms (sec. 143 (3), D. A.) ; exemption only applies to training 
in duties of a combatant nature, (c) Those of the junior cadets, 
certified by the medical officers to be unfit for part of the training, 
so far as that part only (sec. 138 (2), D. A.). 

32. Further, the Governor General has power to proclaim a 
limited exemption (sec. 140 (d), D. A.). Tlds may in the future 
be utilized in regard to those exempted as mentioned in paragraph 
29 (c) and (d) above, by exempting them from all requirements 
(as adults) except a certain number of days in camp annually. 

33. Exemption certificates wiU be issued by the area officer or 
officer appointed by the district commandant for exempt areas. 
Disputed cases will be referred by them to the brigade major or 
commandant. Failing acceptance of the decision given by the 
miUtary authorities, the person concerned can appeal to a court 
(D. A., sec. 139 and Keg. 23.) 

Exemptions may be withdrawn by district commandants (Reg. 21). 

Registration. 
(See Pt. XIV, sees. 142-146, of defense act, and par. 27, above.) 

34. The places appointed for training and registration and for 
exhibition of notices will be published by the district commandant 
in orders and advertised (Reg. 3). Changes will be similarly notified. 

35. Those bound to register must do so in the month of January, 
or, if not then in Australia, within 30 days after completion of 6 
months' residence therein. 

Registration papers may be obtained at post offices, but if not 
available, particulars may be given on ordinary paper. The absence 
of a form is no excuse for failure to register. Parents, guardians, 
or those acting as such, are made responsible for the registration of 
those under age. 

The registration paper, when filled in, may be posted or handed 
to the .postmaster. In exempt areas it should be transmitted to 
the district commandant, in other cases to the area officer. 

The duty of exhibiting notices, keeping and issuing registration 
forms, and transmitting them to the proper person, is laid upon post- 
masters (and postmistresses) by the act, section 145 and regulation 4. 

36. Persons registered and changing their address must notify 
the same within 30 days to the person to whom their registrations 
were sent or to the area officer of the area in which they then reside 



46 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Seagoing persons are dealt with in defense act, section 137 and 
regulation .31. 

37. Prior to the 1st January of each year, area officers and repre- 
sentatives of district commandants should send to postmasters a 
sufficient number of Forms M. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and map showing 
area. 

38. The area officers will retain their registration papers, which 
should be sorted and grouped into those who will train and who 
will be exempt. The former again into groups for the separate 
localities. Each group should be subdivided into classes by je&rs 
of birth and the classes arranged alphabetically. Probably regis- 
tration papers will not be wanted after the issue of the record book, 
but they should be filed in case of necessity. 

In each class should be noted the number training with their 
school in another area. This could be kept on a card with the 
registration papers, so that the correct number available in the area 
in future years for the citizen force might be calculated. 

Inspection and Medical Examination. 
(See defense act, sec. 144.) 

39. Persons liable to be trained must attend when required 
for inspection or medical examination. The former can take 
place any time, but is usually in connection with a medical exami- 
nation. The places will be notified in district orders and advertised 
(Reg. 3), and area officers will notify the day and time to those 
concerned (Reg. 8) by exhibiting notices or by post to individuals 
(Form M. 6). 

The dates and times should be made as little inconvenient as 
possible to those examined and the medical officer, and no more 
should be required to attend at one time than can be examined. 

40. Certain persons will not be required to attend for medical 
examination: 

(a) Those who are not British subjects; (b) those already enu- 
merated in paragraph 29 (a) to (e), until the condition of temporary 
exemption ceases (Regs. 9 and 10) ; (c) those already disquahfied by 
the courts (see par. 30); (d) those known by the area officer to h& 
absolutely unfit, blind, maimed, etc. (Reg. 11). 

41. The medical officer should be assisted in his examination by 
the area officer and staff instructors when possible, and the clerical 
work performed for him. Thus, the weight, height, and other par- 
ticulars, excepting the chest measurement, eye test, and fitness^ 
might be entered by them. 

The record book M. 7 is for the use of those who will be trained; 
M. 8 is the office duplicate of this. Record book M. 9, a simpler 
form, is for those unfit and those temporarily exempted until their 
service begins, and for office copies. 

Until the medical officer has decided whether a lad is medically fit , 
therefore, his book M. 7 should not be filled in. When the entries 
are made it must be signed by the medical officer. 

The statistical caids, M. 10, may be made at the time of the medical 
examinations, or later. Instructions compiled by the Common- 
wealth statistician will be available in each area, and the completed 
cards will be forwarded to him direct. Cards will be sent in for thos& 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 47 

judged absolutely unfit by area officers, with reason for same thereon, 
but without other details. The minister desiies these important 
records to be carefully compiled. 

43. In filling in the marks or scars on the record of medical exami- 
nation, if possible two such variable distinguishing marks should at 
least be noted, and, for preference, those on the face, hands, or neck. 
This is for identification purposes, and to prevent an evader from 
using the record be ok of one who has served. 

44. Care should be taken that the arrangements for the medical 
examination will lequire no undue exposure of the lads, or subject 
them to risk of chills by remaining long undressed. 

Extra staff instructors will be detailed when poss'ble to assist. 

45. The prescribed medical authority referred to in the act and 
regulations ;s (Reg. 19) 

(a) An officer of the Australian Army Medical Corps appointed for 
duty to the training area or to any unit m the area; (h) a duly quaU- 
fied medical practitioner approved by the district commandant; or 
(c) the area officer, in the case of those obviously unfit (Reg. 11). 

Record Book. 

46. The record book has already been mentioned, paragraph 41; 
it is ordered to be issued by section 146 of the defense act. It should 
be noted that all entries in the book are prmia facie evidence in a 
court of law of the facts thus recorded; in other words, they are suffi- 
cient evidence, unless evidence to the contrary is shown. 

For every record book issued a duplicate must be kept by area 
officer of the training area, and when a lad is transferred to another 
area the duplicate book will also be transferred. Duplicates should 
be sorted alphabetically, in classes (see par. 38). 

47. Record books M. 7 should not be issued, as a rule, until 1st 
July, the beginning of the training year, or such date as the issue of 
equipment and clothing has been made, because this has to be 
recorded. 

Unless permission to the contrary is given, every person under- 
going framing should, when in uniform, have his book in possession. 

48. Senior cadets must produce their books for inspection whenever 
required, and if they lose them must pay 2s. for another (Reg. 48). 

49. In view of section 123b of the act, no cadet can be compelled 
to state his religious denomination. When they have no objection, 
however, it should be entered at the bottom of page 5 of the record 
book. The information will be of considerable use in the duplicates 
when making arrangements for religious services in camp, and in the 
original books would aft'ord a means of providing a suitable burial 
for those who die on service. 

50. In estimating the numbers likely to be available we find that 
in 1911 there will be about 4,500,000 people in Austraha, of whom 
2,200,000 have votes on the electoral Usts of the Commonwealth. 
These lists, showing the number of electors in each division and sub- 
division (together with a subdi visional map), are therefore a most 
valuable means of arriving at the probable numbers m any area, 
because it may be fairly assumed that the population is twice the 
number of electors. This should be borne in mind in future proposed 
changes of boundaries. 



48 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

A further guide is the population of cities and towns in the Year- 
book of Austraha. 

51. Having found the population of an area, it is then necessary 
to work out the probable number of senior cadets and citizen soldiers 
in training in the future. 

We find that the population of Austraha contains 188,000 males of 
14 to 18 years and 295,000 males of 18 to 25 years. 

Deduct about 10 per cent as the possible medical rejections for 
senior cadet training, and from 30 to 35 per cent for adult training, 
and we ascertain that every area should supply, for every 1,000 of 
population, about 30 senior cadets and 40 to 50 citizen soldiers.^ 

52. On this basis it has been determined not to commence training, 
normally, in centers with a less population than 3,000, and under no 
circimistances imder 2,000, owing to the small numbers being insuf- 
ficient for satisfactory training, in addition to the great expense 
involved in visiting a number of small centers. 

53. It may be thought that 35 per cent medical rejections in large 
cities is too high, but it is less than experience shows in European 
cities. Further, it has to be remembered that medical officers will 
bear in mind the bodily exertion required of soldiers in the field on 
active service.^ 

The uniform, equipment, and arms of an Infantry soldier weigh 
nearly 60 pounds, and with this he must be prepared to march 20 
miles a day. To spend large sums on the equipment, training, and 
clothing of men who arc not fit for war woidd be a breach of public 
duty, and hence the necessity for a weeding out in peace of those 
who would become stragglers in war. 

Apart from the matter of physical endurance, it is little realized 
how many, even in the country districts, are affected by weaknesses, 
at present in ordinary life perhaps causing no serious inconvenience, 
but in war bound, under the severe stress^, of exposure and fatigue, 
to throw out those whom they burden. 

The medical rejections for the senior cadets are only put at 10 per 
cent, because it is desired in this stage to eliminate only those who 
are unable to bear the fatitue of the elementary training, or who 
already bear certain defects from which they can not possibly be 
sufficiently free at 18 years to be fit for service. 

Allotment to Arms. 
(See sec. 143 of defense act.) 

54. Subsection (2) of the above section requires that all those liable 
to training shall be allotted to the naval or military forces. It is 
intended that the Australian Navy shall have its pick of our lads. 
Naturally, those who live in certain locahties, and belonging to certain 
classes of employment, will be selected by the naval authorities. 
Our young navy will have many difficulties to overcome, and Aus- 
tralia's needs must have first consideration, not the individual wishes 
of those who wish or who do not wish to serve in the first line of defense. 

1 Speaking generally, the forecast has tiimed out slightly less than has actually resulted from the work 
during 1911-12. 

J The average percentage of rejections (medical) at the age of 14 years is acttially 7.6. The percentage of 
rejections at the age of 18 years, of senior cadets available for transfer to the militia, is actually 15.3. The 
reason of this apparent difference is that the earlier examination weeds out only those too weak for senior 
cadet training, or who have some defect which they can not grow out of, and which will certainly cause 
rejection at 18 years. 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 49 

55. Those not allotted to the Navy will be allotted to the various 
arms of the land forces, bat not until their senior cadet training is 
completed. 

To commence the subdivision of the work in the senior cadets would 
involve a very largely increased staff and expenditure, and a decrease 
in the value of the training in minute detachments. The senior 
cadet training will be of one character only, and will include the 
foundation work necessary for service in any arm, viz: Marching, 
discipline, the handling of arms, muslvetry, physical drill, first aid, 
guards and sentries, tactical training as a company in elementary 
field work, and some battalion drill (siifhcient only of the latter to 
move large bodies in an orderly manner). (Reg. 27.) 

Big parades are not oar ideal, nor of any great practical value, 
but it is as well to be ready if the public feeling demands them, and 
there is small doubt that the people will not understand the magnitude 
of our undertaking until it sees what large numbers we are dealing 
with. 

56. Mounted cadets. Boy Scouts, Boys' Brigades, and all these- 
kindred organizations, can not be included in the new arrangements. 
Such .of them as continue on a voluntary basis will not be interfered 
with, but their members can not be excused from training in the units 
organized under the defense act. 

Senior Cadets. 
organization. 

57. All the senior cadets in a battalion area will be allotted to one 
battalion. The strength will vary considerably, because such areas 
are unnecessarily unequal in size and population, and the number of 
companies will not be uniform, but this is no matter, as the battalion 
is not a fighting unit or trained as such, and its appearance on parade 
as a whole will be rare. 

For this reason, a battalion staff is seldom required on parade. It 
will therefore consist only of a battalion commander and an adjutant 
(area officer). The battalion commander will be a citizen officer, 
responsible for command^ discipline, and recommendations for pro- 
motion, etc. 

58. The battalion area is divided into two or three training areas, 
and the senior cadets in each will be allotted to companies, of the 
following establishment (Reg. 25) : 

Captain 1 

Lieutenants 2 

Color sergeant 1 

Sergeants 4 

Corporals 4 

Buglers 2 

Privates 106 

Total 120 

If there are not sufficient numbers in any locality, a company 
may be less than the above, the reduction being in privates, but less 
than 80 will be a detachment, i. e., part of a company, and will be 
joined to some other locality to form a company, the various ranks 
being allotted proportionately to each. 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 i 



50 THE AUSTRALIAISr SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Companies should not contain any but those of the same training 
area, and, as far as possible, officers, noncommissioned oliicers, and 
privates should be from the same part of the training area, if it is 
extensive. The same prmciple should be followed in half companies 
and sections. 

TRAINING. 

(See sees. 126, 127, and 133 of the defense act.) 

59. Training in every year begins on 1st July, and terminates 
on the following 30th June. The first training carried out under 
the act will be that of the year 1911-12, of wliich the registration 
takes place in January, 1911. 

For the purposes of the act, those whose fourteenth birthday 
occurs at any time in the year 1911, will be considered of the age of 
14 years on the 1st July, 1911, at the beginning of the training. 

The battalions will therefore have on 1st July of each year lads 
from 13^ to 17^ years, and, on the 30th June following, from 14^ to 
18^ years. 

Those who are passed out into the citizen forces every year on 
30th June will be 17^ to 18^ years. 

60. The duration of training is 4 whole-day drills of not less than 
6 hours * (probably held on public holidays) ; 12 half-day drills of 
not less than 3 hours ;2 24 night drills of not less than 1^ hours ;=' 
but these can be varied,. if approved by the brigade major. Thus, 
instead of night drills, detachments at schools may have all their 
work in daylight. 

These recjuircments are absolutely compulsory. The number of 
parades, called as statutory parades, will be increased by extra 
voluntary parades. The latter are for the purpose of enabling those 
who are backward to attain the necessary proficiency, to give an 
opportunity for practice to those preparing for promotion, and to 
make up for parades missed. 

A statutory parade missed while on leave may be made up by 
attending a similar (or longer) voluntary parade, but a parade missed 
without leave can only be made up for "efficiency" purposes by 
attending two separate voluntary parades, each of equal or longer 
duration than the one missed. 

Leave only wiU be granted in special cases (Reg. 28). 

61. But attendance at the statutory number of parades alone 
does not satisfy the requirements of the act. A perfunctory attend- 
ance is of no value to the country or the lad. The object of the act 
is to make men fit to fight, and, consequently, every year, at the 
end of the training, there will be boards of officers in every battalion, 
who will classify the cadets as "efficient" or "nonefficient." This 
will be entered in their record books, and the year's work of the lad 
who is nonefficient goes for naught; he will have to do an extra 
year's training for each failure. 

62. The standard required mil necessarily not be very high the 
first year, practically only what an average lad giving proper atten- 
tion ought to have learned in the time, and in each successive year 
a higher standard will be expected. 

> Since altered to 4 hours. 2 Since altered to 2 hours. s since altered to 1 hour. 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 51 

The subjects taught are already given in paragraph 55, and a 
small manual is now in course of preparation, showing what parts 
of the authorized books are to be used, and giving details of matters 
not contained in such books. 

Instructors must be careful not to work boys too hard, particu- 
larly the younger ones, and especially in physical exercises and in 
parades of considerable length. Emulation often leads boys to 
attempt what is too much for their strength, and this can only be 
prevented by careful watching on the part of the instructor. Such 
lads should be made to stand aside and rest. It can be done on many 
excuses without hurting their feelings, and this also should be especially 
remembered when only a few are put aside. Never do anything 
to make a willing but not overstrong lad dislike to come to parade. 
Care may make a soldier of him eventually. 

The Manual or Physical Training contains much valuable scientific 
information in regard to the proper development of lads without 
overworking them. 

Area officers should consider the convenience of those under train- 
ing when suggesting dates of parades to battalion commanders. 
Ample warning should be given of dates of parades, or changes therein, 
and there should be recognized places in every area in which they 
are posted. 

In the training of senior cadets the officers will be citizen officers. 
Some may be well up in their work, others not so. It is important 
that instructors should do everything to support the authority of 
the citizen officer and assist liim to quahfy for his responsibilities. 
But it is ordered that, when present on parade, half the instruction 
should be given by the area officer or a staff instructor. 

LEAVE, ABSENCE, TRANSFERS. 
(See Regulation 28.) 

63. Leave mr.y only be granted in special cases (Reg. 28) and is 
only made good by attending parades in lieu. A senior cadet mov- 
ing to another area for some months, especially if the term includes 
30th Jmie, should apply for a transfer to the new area. For shorter 
periods he should apply to either area officer for permission to tem- 
porarily -train in the new area (instruction (1) after Reg. 31). 

In certain cases, e. g., living near the border of an area, he may 
be permitted to train in an area other than that in which he lives. 

In these matters area officers and the staff should not raise routine 
difficulties, if substantial compliance with the act is given, and every 
assistance should be given. 

64. Absence caused by sickness of which the area officer is satis- 
fied should be taken to justify a "temporary exemption" for the 
time in question. Medical certificates cost money, and should not 
be demanded except in suspicious cases. Even in such cases it may 
be necessary to have the assistance of the medical officer of the area. 
When such"^ temporary exemption is of long duration, naturally so 
high a standard of efficiency can not be expected at the end of the 
year. 

65. In the case of those who for part of the year have lived in 
an exempt area, or at too great a distance from a training place, 
the same principle should be applied as in the last paragraph. 



52 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

66. Transfers may be applied for either to the area officer of 
the old or new area. Clothing alone should be taken by the senior 
cadet, and a duphcate signature for the same should be obtained 
for the area officer of his old area, in view of the acknowledgment 
in the duplicate record book being transferred to the new area. 

If transfer takes place after the "efficiency" classification for the 
year, it should be entered before transfer. 



67. All educational establishments which have 60 senior cadets 
may be allowed separate units for trainmg purposes, provided every 
company or detachment has not less than one teacher of the insti- 
tution as an officer. They will form part of the battalion of which 
the local training area supplies part. 

68. Their parades may be arranged differently from those of the 
other companies in the area, but they must attend the same bat- 
talion parades. 

69. The senior cadets in these units, if they live in other areas, 
must notify the area officers of those areas, in order that the latter 
may keep a correct account of those who will be available for adult 
training later on. 

70. A senior cadet transferring from one school to another, or to 
the universities, may be similarly transferred in the special units, 
provided the area officer of his residential area is notifiecl. 

71. Should students remain at such institutions after the 1st July 
of the year in which they become 18 years of age, they may contmue 
to train in the senior cadets or such special units as above men- 
tioned. Their traming, however, must be of the same standard and 
duration as in the citizen forces. This could be arranged by form- 
ing part of the special units raised at universities, etc., or by doing 
part of the training with miits of the citizen forces. (See defense 
act, sec. 128.) 

EVASION OF SERVICE. 

(See sees. 134-136 of the defense act.) 

72. Ko lad can be prevented from trainmg by his employer, unde, 
a penalty of £100. He is not entitled to pay while away from work 
but this should affect him very little if the dates of pai-ades are suit- 
ably chosen. 

Any lad who is prevented from serving by his employer, or whose 

Eay is reduced, or any other influence to the like effect brought to 
ear, should notify his area officer, and the necessary action will be 
taken to enforce the penalty. Any action having the effect of keep- 
ing the lad from parades throws on the employer the onus of provmg 
the cause to be otherwise. 

73. No person can escape liability by evading service. Some time 
or other he will be caught, and will then have to put in his full serv- 
ice, and, in addition, is liable to payment of a penalty from £5 to 
£100 for each year of evasion. The penalty may be infficted, but 
can not be enforced until the end of the year in which the offender 
reaches the age of 18 years. 

Further, he may be ordered by the court into the custody of a 
member of the instructional staff or an area officer, to be drilled for 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 53 

the extent of time he has evaded trainmg. Should he attempt to 
escape, he may be rearrested and ordered by the court to do addi- 
tional training up to 20 days for each offense. 

74. While a defaulter in respect to training a person can not be 
employed by the Commonwealth. 

NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 
(See sec. 62 of the defense act, and Reg. 33.) 

75. Noncommissioned ofScers of the senior cadets will be appointed 
on the results of competitive examinations of those in the next lower 
grade. The examination will be practical only, and candidates, after 
January, 1913, must have a specified length of service. 

76. All instructors should make lads understand that their future 
advancement in the defense force of Australia depends almost en- 
tirely on the progress they make in the first two years of the senior 
-ca<lot training. There should be the greatest keenness to succeed, 
and every encouragement and assistance given to those attending 
the voluntary parades for qualification. 



(See defense act. sec. 62, and Regs. 34-43.) 

77. The ofiicers of the senior cadets will usually be men of mature 
yeai-s, but a small number of second lieutenants may be appointed 
un<ler rules similar to those of noncommissioned ofiicers. The junior 
officers wiU pass up into the citizen forces with others of the same 
year, and are then eligible for commissions in the defense force. 
(D. A., sec. 62.) 

It is hoped that the bulk of the officers of the new senior cadet 
units will be provided by the present officers of old senior and junior 
cadets. 

78. The examination for officers of the senior cadets is laid down 
in regulation 37, and their ranks are honorary ranks in the defense 
force. They may, however, take the same examination as officers of 
the citizen forces, in which case they receive substantive commissions. 

79. Officers are provided with uniform free of cost (Reg. 49), and 
an annual aUowance (Reg. 57). 



80. Uniform is necessary for military training, ordinary plain 
clothes being unsuitable for the work. All classes will have to train 
together; there should be no distinction in dress, only that of pro- 
ficiency as a young soldier. Uniform wiU always be worn on duty, 
never at any other time. 

81. The issue of uniform involves great expenditure; therefore, it 
must be simple while suitable for the purpose. It wiU consist of hat, 
woolen shirt, woolen breeches, and puttees, issuable every second 
year. This will meet the requirements of growing lads, more especially 
as the design of the garments aUows a certain margin in fitting. 

82. In the first year of the system we have little to guide us as to 
the proportion of sizes required, and a very large supply must be got 
ready by 30th June, 1911. 



64 THE AUSTEALIA]Sr SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Area officers should endeavor to complete the medical examina- 
tions, and send in their requisitions for garments, stating number of 
each size required, by 1st March. 

83. Uniform will be taken by cadets transferred to another area, 
or to the citizen forces. (See par. 66 and Regs. 49-53.) 

84. All senior cadets will wear the battalion numeral on the front 
of the hat. Officers, when wearing mihtary shirts, will wear rank 
badges on the collar. 

EQUIPMENT. 

85. Regulations 50-55 deal with equipment. Arms are not to be 
taken to the lads' homes under any circumstances, and no ball 
ammunition is to be allowed to remain in their possession except 
while in position to fire at the range. 

The Westley-Richards rifle, a light form of Martini-Henry, with 
smokeless powder, has the latest pattern of sights, and is capable of 
excellent shooting at short ranges. It vnW. kill at 500 yards, and 
therefore wo aid be quite serviceable for departmental troops in war. 

The service rifle may be issued in small numbers to the elder lads 
who are good shots, for the purposes of competition only. The cadet 
rifle wiU be used for aU drill and cadet musketry. 

All equipment issued is take]i on charge in the ledgers of area 
officei-s, not by battalions. 

FINANCIAL CONSIDERATION. 
(See Regs. 56-58.) 

86. In every training area there wiU probably be, on the average: 
Senior cadets, 300, minimum; 550, maximum. Recruits for citizen 
forces, 70, minimum; 120, maximum. Trained soldiers, 250, mini- 
mum; 500, maximum; and, in addition, some junior cadets not 
attending school. 

To provide driU-haU accommodation, offices, and storerooms for 
these, on the scale often followed in the past, would mean an ex- 
penditure of about £3,000 on each locality, and there are over 300 
of such localities. 

The erection of such buildings would therefore entail an expendi- 
ture of £1,00C',000, and at a time when all that can be spared is 
wanted for fighting equipment. 

87. Already, the Commonwealth Government has been in com- 
munication with the premiers of States, with the object of securing 
the cooperation and assistance of the municipal and shire governing 
bodies, and the replies have been most encouraging. 

Should such assistance not be given in any case, we are no worse 
off than 20 years ago, when the smaU defense force then in existence 
did very well in the then state of military science, even though we 
had to learn our rifle exercises by the fight of the street lamps. 

When the new scheme is properly understood, however, there is no 
doubt that the local bodies will do their best to help their own sons to 
whatever accommodation can be made available on the drill nights. 

And we trust, too, that the local mayors and their councils will 
become the patrons of our lads' rifle clubs and encourage them in all 
their military competitions. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 55 

Failing all else, it is to be remembered that this is a working organ- 
ization, and that all the room absolutely necessary for office and 
storeroom can be provided by a small cottage in a working locality. 

DISCIPLINE. 

(See Regulations 44-48.) 

SS. All cadets in a military district are under the orders of the 
commandant (sec. 62, D. A.), and, under him, the battalion and com- 
pany commanders are responsible. 

The battalion commander deals with military offenses, or in the 
cases of detachments at a distance, the detachment commanders. 

The senior cadet units are subject to the same rules for discipline 
as the citizen forces, and these rules are contained in the defense act 
and Commonwealth Military Regulations, with the exception that, 
instead of trying them in serious cases by court-martial, they will be 
brought before a court of summary jurisdiction. 

It is well to remember that certain new prohibitions have been 
made law by the defense act. 

No senior cadet may have any cigarettes in his possession, or material 
for them, in uniform, on duty, or parade, or in any place used for 
military purposes (Reg. 47). The same prohibition applies to intoxi- 
cating liquor. 

Nor may any person, soldier or civilian, have any such liquor m his 
possession in any place in which training under the new system is 
in progress (D. A., sec. 123a). The penalty for any person subject to 
military discipline is not exceeding three months' imprisonment; in 
other cases, a fine of £10. 

89. Military discipline should be taught as a regular subject, in 
connection with other work, because 10 minutes at a time is the most 
that should be taken. Not being so interesting as other subjects, 
great care must be taken not to bore those under instruction, 
and one of the best methods is to ask c[uestions as to what should be 
done in certain circumstances, correcting mistakes in the answers. 

Similarly, citizen officers should receive assistance from the staff 
instructors, because it is most necessary that they should be familiar 
with the proper method of enforcing the rules required by an organ- 
ized force. 

Discipline, it is true, may be enforced by a system of punishments 
only, it is improved b}^ the addition of rewards for excellence; but, 
with Australians, boys or men, experience shows that real discipline 
depends most on the officer knowing his job. Show a well-disciplined 
company and we all know it has a level-headed commander who 
knows his work. 

90. Fines inflicted for breaches of disciplhie, if unpaid, can be 
recovered before a court (see C. M. Reg. 297a), or can be deducted 
from pay subsequently earned in the citizen forces, or can be made a 
reason for classification as "Nonefficient," because no lad or soldier 
can be considered efficient who is in default in disciplinary matters. 

Commanding officers in applying the scale of punishments laid 
down in C. M. Regs, must bear' in mind that they are dealing with 
senior cadets, and at the same time remember what the lad is earning 
or the financial position of his parents, in fixing the amount of fine. 
What is little to one may be a serious loss to another. 



56 THE AUSTRALIAIST SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Junior Cadets. 
(See defense act, sees. 62, 125-127.) 

91. TraiiiLng in the junior cadets commences on July 1, of tlie year 
in which boys attain the age of 12 j^ears, and ceases on the commence- 
ment of training in the senior cadets, two years later. 

The training is again of a more elementary character, and rather for 
the purpose of building up the frames of our future men and giving 
them knowledge of a general character not always taught in schools. 
Many of them may fail to "pass the doctor" later on, but they wiU be 
better citizens for their training and, if they serve, better soldiers. 

The act makes no demand for registration at the age of 12 years, 
but later on, when they are registered, it will be necessary for them to 
satisfy the area officers that they have complied with the act. 

Regulations for the universal junior cadet traming have not yet 
been issued, but wDl be available before commencement of the train- 
ing. The paragraphs following deal with the probable provisions of 
those regulations as outlmed m preliminar}^ decisions of the minister. 

92. The act provides that "where the required training is given by 
the masters of schools to the satisfaction of the i)rescribed officer, that 
training may be accepted as sufficient." It is expected that the 
majority of the boys liable will be thus trained. Those who are not 
attending school must be provided for by means of the existing 
military staff. 

In the case of the Government schools the ])rescribed officers may be 
such State uispectors of schools or special inspectors of physical train- 
ing, as are appointed by the minister for defense. 

In the case of other schools the department will also appoint either 
special mspectors or area officers to see that the act is complied with. 
It is not the intention in any way to interfere with the work of schools 
which do the work laid down m the act. 

Facilities will be given by which the special instruction required 
can be imparted to school teachers at special schools of instruction, 
or during visits of the physical training staff of the department. 

School teachers who thus qualify as instructors will be exempt 
from military training under section 138 (1) (c) of the defense act. 

When training is not carried out by the schoolmasters, area officers 
will arrange for the staff instructors to visit the schools, if possible, 
at such times as the work of the staff' will permit, otherwise the boys, 
like those not attending school, will have to attend when and where 
ordered. 

93. The prescribed training for schools will be: 

(a) Physical training, not less than 15 minutes per school day, and 
attainment of a certain standard of efficiency, (h) Elementary march, 
ing drill (no time to be prescribed), with a certain standard of effi- 
ciency. Every boy to attain a prescribed standard in at least two 
of the following: (c) miniature rifle shootmg; (d) swimming; (e) 
running exercises in organized games' (f) first-aid instruction. 

The Syllabus of Physical Exercises for Public Elementary Schools, 
1909, adopted by the board of education, London, and recommended 
by the conference of March, 1910, will be the textbook for sub- 
jects (a) and (e). 

94. The boys subject to junior cadet training will be medically 
examined by medical officers of areas, and those unfit will be exempted 
from all or part of the training. 



THE australia:\ system of national defense. 57 

95. Military uniform will not be issued and must not be worn by 
junior cadets; penalty, £10. Uniform is not necessary for the work 
and the cost of it would be great: In view of the other great demands 
on the public purse, therefore, it will not be provided. To permit it 
to be worn would, as now, differentiate between those whose parents 
could afford it and the others. In complying with the public duty 
of training this distinction can not be permitted. Area officers will 
report any attempts to evade this provision. 

96. The practice of assisting in the construction of miniature rifle 
ranges, issuing miniature rifles on loan, and granting ammunition is 
to be continued. The rifles will be ''Francotte" pattern, until the 
existing stock is exhausted, then an approved miniature pattern. 
The issue will probably be 10 per cent of the numbers in training. 

Existing Citizen Forces. 

97. The existing forces have been expensive and not so efficient as 
Australia needs. This has not been the fault of those in it, as a rule, 
but of the system. The number of men who did not complete three 
years' training was enormous, the proportion who completed mus- 
ketry each year not high, and the proportion who were nonefficient 
much too large. Much of the trouble arose through conditions of 
employment, which will be removed under the action of the new acts, 
and the new trainees, under the guidance of the stable and well- 
trained element now in the defense force, will enable Australia to 
gradually create a respectable fighting force. 

98. For the present the existing units, now practically all militia, 
will continue unaltered; but it is hoped that as many as possible will 
use this transition period to prepare for the many opportunities for 
j)romotion that will arise in the next three years. Those \vho are 
([ualiiied will receive promotion, and those who fail to be ready must 
be passed over. 

99. The magnitude of the new organization may be judged from 
the following outline: 24 existing Infantry battalions will become 93, 
IS existing Light Horse regiments will become 28, and 18 existing 
field batteries will become 56. 

The increase in Light Horse is not so marked at first, as the first 
application of the new acts is mostly to tov/n areas. Later on, the 
expansion of the training will increase the mounted units at a much 
more rapid rate. Universal training must be applied first in thickly 
populated areas, because it is cheaper to carry out there, and because 
the town men require more training than those experienced in coun- 
try life. 

The new field batteries will not all be created at the beginning of 
the organization, but will be increased in succession. The other units 
will all commence at the one time, and other arms of the services will 
be multiplied in proportion to the Infantry and Light Horse. 

The New Citizen Force. 

100. Those who first become liable to training in the new citizen 
forces will be the eldest class of those who commence senior cadet 
work on the 1st July, 1911. A year later they will have had a year's 
experience of elementary training, and on 1st July, 1912, those who 
were born in year 1894 will be allotted to the several arms of the 



58 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

service in the new organization, and will commence their first, or 
recruit, year in the new citizen forces. They will not be raw recruits, 
and stillless will those be who pass up from the senior cadets in later 
years, but they Avill be recruits in reference to the special training of 
the arm to which they are allotted. 

101. On this day, 1st July, 1912, the actual new units receive their 
first members, and on some date subsequent to this the old organi- 
zation, the Militia units, will divide up to create the main stock of 
the new regiments, to which each year some 20,000 new trainees under 
the act will be grafted. 

102. Units will be armed as now, with the same weapons as used 
in the British Army, and with complete equipment for war in regi- 
mental mobilization stores. The uniforms wiU be simple and suit- 
able for active service, and will be issued in such proportions that, on 
being called out at any time for active service, each soldier should be 
able to parade with— 

Shirts, military, woolen, khaki 2 

Breeches 2 

Great coat 1 

Hat 1 

Cap (sleeping) 1 

Puttees, woolen, khaki, pairs (or 1 pair leggings, leather) 2 

Boots, military pattern, pairs 2 

Kit bag 1 

The boots will be kept, greased, in regimental stores, and used only 
for camps of training, but after completion of service they wUl be 
given to the soldier. 

In this way only, except at great additional expense, can a citizen 
force be prepared to mobilize in a reasonable time, so far as concerns 
personal outfit. 

Jackets and trousers, on present lines, are only to be issued to offi- 
cers and sergeants. 

103. The success of any large citizen force must depend upon the 
character and training of the citizen officers and noncommissioned 
officers and, indirectly, on the permanent staff who train them. In 
time of war everything may be said to depend on them. 

The future force is planiied to be 120,000 of aU ranks, including 
about 5,000 citizen officers and 8,000 noncommissioned officers. 

The permanent instructors in the new scheme include some 300 
officers and 400 noncommissioned officers. 

In time of war half of these at least would be needed to train the 
reserves and new units, and the remainder would be an infinitesimal 
part of the whole force. This emphasizes the necessity of training 
the citizen officer to the highest responsibilities in leading, and com- 
mand. But a small proportion of them, having other professions to 
attend to, can ever become well versed in peace administration and 
general organization outside their own units, or in the highest tech- 
nicalities of instructional work, but in actual leading of troo])s and 
command in the field there is no reason why they should not be just as 
proficient as regular soldiers. 

104. With tills object in view, only the best brains and hardest 
workers will be selected at the annual com]:)etitive tests for promotion 
to a higher grade, and, while Australia will be getting noncommis- 
sioned officers and afterwards officers, who are the best men of their 
years, it will be a startling lesson to other so-called democratic na- 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OP NATIONAL DEFENSE. 59 

tions in the application of the principle that the best soldiers must 
lead, whatever their civil avocation or birth. 

Reserves. 

(See C. M. Regs. 518, 132a, 514a, 605-608.) 

105. No provision was made in the acts of 1909 and 1910 for the 
creation of any new reserve. Not till 1st July, 1920, will any of our 
new citizen force pass out of the organization created by these stat- 
utes. Till then, any shortage required to make those in training to 
the war establishments must be provided by the members of the 
rifle clubs and those on the reserve forces lists. 

No doubt when the system is in full work later on arrangements 
will be made for the reserve organization of those who pass the age of 
26 years. 

It is probable that large numbers will desire to continue the most 
fascinating part of a soldier's work, rifle shooting, and remain, as in 
Switzerland, members of the rifle clubs. 

HlOHBB TRAININa. 

^'106. Military history may be taken in a right or in a wrong sense 
Some of our Australian officers and soldiers have some experience 
of war in South Africa, very few elsewhere. Some judge all military 
problems by what they experienced in South Africa; in that they are 
wrong; the conditions were peculiar probably to that single' war, and 
may never occur again; the enemy were all mounted riflemen, they 
had little knowledge of strategy, much of cunning, none of disci- 
pline. Others, for these reasons, think that such experience will be 
of no value in the future. 

Both are wrong; valuable deductions may be obtained by study of 
this war, even if we were not there, when we give due weight to the 
conditions in force. So, too, with the Manchurian and other wars. 
And in this study of military history lies the secret of the future suc- 
cess of Australia's troops, the attainment of a knowledge of what 
could be done in the past under all sorts of conditions, and a reason- 
ing and well-balanced judgment of what may be attained therefore 
in the future. 

107. With this object, the Government now assists the work of 
the united service institutions in the several States; it conducts 
schools of instruction, staff tours, is arranging for the publication 
of a military magazine, and is about to create a military college. 

108. With the new system, the younger officers will realize the 
value of the assistance given them to fit themselves for their respon- 
sibilities — life or death, may be, to the men under their orders. Part 
of our present officers have realized it, and have done their best; the 
others will, no doubt, find the new ordov of things too trying. Too 
much has often been heard of officers' rights to this or the other thing, 
his right to promotion, etc., and too little of the rights of Australia. 
Australia has a right to give commissions to those she finds fit for the 
work, and when and how she pleases, and to place them in the reserve 
if it be thought necessary; the defense of our country is of more value 
than the rights of a thousand individuals. If this principle be always 
kept in mind, we shall do our duty better. 



60 THE AUSTEALIAlSr SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

War. 

109. If war should occur to-morrow, how should we stand ? Now, 
and for the next two years, we should have at most 50,000 of all ranks, 
more or less trained. It would be difficult to concentrate more than 
30,000 in an}^ one place. 

The new system will give us in eight years' time a force of 126,000 
trained men and fully equipped. Every year afterwards will increase 
the reserve by 12,000 men. And if the training be extended, as it 
easily may, into the country areas, the numbers may be increased by 
40 per cent. 

110. What do we want all these troops for? At present there are 
no clouds on the country's horizon, but, on the other hand, there are 
many, and not fools either, who do beheve war likely. Whether war 
is likely or no is not the question, however ; it is whether war is pos- 
sible, and what war, and what might be the result to Australia, This 
we must put before our minds, when we have to think as a people of 
the sacrifices to be undertaken to ward it off. 

111. Nations apparently fight very often for but small excuses, but 
there are underlying reasons always that are not so apparent. The 
desire of larger territory, of increased trade, of clearing away dis- 
tasteful restrictions, even the barefaced desire of the strong to impose 
his will upon the weak; these and many others decide the rules of a 
nation to undertake a war. 

The superficial cause, after the secret decision is taken, may be so 
trivial a matter as the arrest of a fellow citizen in the threatened 
country, an extravagant and impossible demand for a humiliating 
indemnit}^, the consequent refusal, and an act of war. 

112. Australia is about to make great sacrifices in money, and its 
male citizens equally great sacrifices in time given to parades and 
thought and fatigue in the attainment of efficiency; but there is yet 
a third necessity not yet mentioned. Neither the one, nor the other, 
nor both together, wdl make more than a lifeless and mechanical 
representation of an army, unless it has also enthusiasm. Call it 
this, or patriotism, or bushido; it matters not, we all know what it is. 
Without it would the Boer have struggled on through a three years' 
hopeless war, the Japanese soldiers have rushed forward to fill the 
ditch that their comrades might pass over to victory? Without it, 
would the little Swiss Republic have time and again reorganized their 
citizen army, after more than once suft'ering all but annihilation? 

Some nations know what war really means. The Swiss mothers 
have heard from their grandmothers what the Napoleonic Wars meant 
to many of them. The Chinese women whisper how but a few years 
back their sisters threw themselves into wells after the foreign troops 
had passed. Infant children have been tossed on bayonets, even in 
the last ten years. It is true we did not make war like this in South 
Africa, but we do not choose our enemy or his methods. 

This is why we want an army. We do not want war, and keeping 
an army fit for defense is the best preventive. 

113. Australian mothers have, fortunately, no experience of war, 
nothing that they can personally feel and instill into their children as 
yet, until pride in the new national force comes into being. Without 
it, we must turn to some other motive for the enthusiasm that means 
success. 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 61 

Young Australians are fond of open-air life and sport. DriJl and 
maneuvers will give them the former, and the introduction into all 
their military work of the system of competitions will afford scope for 
the latter. Properly made use of, there is nothing Australians will 
not achieve to succeed in what appeals to this sentiment. 

114. It is prop(>sed, therefore, to have regimental and brigad? com- 
petitions in all exercises forming part of military training, and to bring 
the champion teams of States to Federal competitions for the blue 
ribbon of the Australian Army. 

In this all can help — fathers, mothers, and sist?rs — by encouraging 
the spirit of territorial rivalry that results in excellence of work. It 
only needs the will for Australians to make themselves the best 
soldiers in the world. 



Part ni.— EXTRACTS FROM THE REPORT OF AN INSPECTION 
OF THE MILITARY FORCES OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF 
AUSTRALIA, BY GEN. SIR IAN HAMILTON, G. C. B., D. S. O. 

[Hobart, Apr. 24, 1914.] 

I. THE MILITARY INSTITUTIONS OF AUSTRALIA. 

Headquarters Organization. 

1. The Minister of State for Defense is responsible to Parliament 
for both the Navy and the Army of the Commonwealth. On matters 
connected with naval and military policy and expenditure he is 
advised by a Council of Defense, consisting of himself as president, 
the treasurer, two na\^al officers, two military officers, and the con- 
sulting military engineer, with the permanent head of the Defense 
Department as secretary. 

The military forces of Australia are controlled and administered 
by a Military Board, which consists of the following membeis: The 
Minister of State for Defense (president), the Chief of the General Staff, 
the Adjutant General, the Quartermaster General, the Chief of Ord- 
nance, and the finance member, with a secretary from the office of the 
permanent head of the Defense Department. 

The distribution of duties among the members of the board is 
detailed in Appendix B. 

Th^re is also an Inspector General of the military forces whose 
business it is to review and to report to the minister the practical 
results of the policy of the Government as administered by the 
Military Board. 

Territorial Organization. 

2. The Commonwealth is divided into six military districts (Appen- 
dix C), each under a district commandant, assisted by a district staff. 
The boundaries of the districts are practically coterminus with the 
sixpolitical State boundaries. 

The basis of the territorial system is the battalion area, which pro- 
vides a battalion of senior cadets, and will eventually provide a bat- 
talion of Infantry as well as its quota for other arms — Light Horso^ 
Field Artillery, and Garrison Artillery. 



62 



THE AUSTKALIAN SYSTEM OE NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



Four battalion areas are grouped to form a brigade area, which 
eventually will furnish an Infantry brigade, one company of Engi- 
neers, one of Army Service Corps, and a field ambulance. 

For purposes of teriitorial administration and for the training of 
senior cadets, each battalion area is subdivided into two or three 
training areas, each administered by an area officer. There are in all 
215 training areas. Area officers are at pr< sent temporary appoint- 
ments. Eventually permanent officers will be appointed as they 
become available from the Koyal Military College. In each battaHon 
area one of the permanent area officers will then act as adjutant of the 
militia battalion. 

A permanent area brigade major supervises the work of the area 
officers v\dthin a brigade area. When Infantry brigades are complete 
the area brigade major will also be the brigade major of the Infantry 
brigade. 

Liability to Serve in Time of War. 

3. Under section 59 of the defense act all male inhabitants of Aus- 
tralia ^ between the ages of 18 and 60, who have resided therein for 
six months and are British subjects, shall, in time of war, be liable 
to serve in the citizen forces, and under section 60 (3) such persons 
may be called upon to enlist in sequence in five classes according to 
age, and whether married or single, etc. 

Liability for Service Abroad. 

4. "Members of the defense force who are members of the military 
forces shall not be required, unless they voluntarily agree to do so, 
to serve beyond the limits of the Commonwealth and those of any 
Territory under the authority of the Commonwealth." — Defense 
act, section 49. 

Scheme of Training. 

5. Training under the act is prescribed as follows: 



Rank. 


Age. 


Service. 


Training. 


Junior cadets 


Years. 
12-14 
14-18 

18-26 


Years. 
2 
4 

8 


Annually: 90 hours. 


Senior cadets 


Annually: 4 whole-day, 12 half-day, and 24 nigh 


Citizen forces (militia) 


diills (quarter days).! 
Annually: In first 7 years' drills equivalent to 16 
whole "days, of which at least 8 must be in camp.s 



' Variations are pennissible, provided the total remains the same. 

2 Artillery and Engineers (as well as those alloted to the naval forces) must train for 25 days annually, 
of which 17 days must be in camp. In the eighth year militia are required only to attend a registration or 
muster parade. 

Conditions op Enrollment in Citizen Forces. 



6. Contingent on the necessities of the service, the wishes of indi- 
viduals are considered in allotment to arms. Only specially selected 
men are accepted for service with Artillery, Engineers, Army Service 
Corps, and Army Medical Corps. No cases have occurred where 
there has been an insuffi.ciency of candidates for service with these 
special corps. 

1 Subject to certain exemptions. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 63 

Service in the Light Horse is voluntary. The recruit provides his 
own horse. 

In other arms vohnitary cnhstment ceased on 30th June, 1912, 
but all those serving on that date were permitted to .contmue their 
service until the expiry of their period of enlistment, noncommis- 
sioned officers being given the privilege of recnlisting for further 
periods. 

The rates of pay for the citizen forces are given in Appendix D. 

War Organization (1919-20). 

7. By present arrangements the peace organization of the Aus- 
tralian Army is to be developed to provide in 1919-20 a war organiza- 
tion for a field army, for garrison troops, "and for district columns, 
amounting to 8 Light Horse brigades, 6 Divisions,* 2 mixed forces 
(in fifth and sixth districts), and 1 Infantry brigade. 

Units Still to be Formed. 

8. The units which have yet to be formed in order to complete the 
above war organization are as follows (see Appendix E for detail) : 
6 Light Horse regiments, 4 divisional squadrons, 25 batteries Field 
Artillery (IS-pounder),^ 5 batteries Field Artillery (howitzer), 34 
am]nunition columns, 6^ field companies, 2 signal troops, 2 divisional 
signal companies, 2 v/ircless companies. 33 Infantry battalions, 
16 companies Army Service Corps, 2 Light Horse field ambulances, 
and 9 field ambulances. 

Numbers Required, 1919-20. 

9. In round numbers the war requirements in 1919-20 will be 
4,500 officers and 130,500 other ranks; total, 135,000. 

Numbers Available, 1919-20. 

10. To meet requirements there will be available, permanent,^ 380 
officers, and 2,800 other ranks; militia,* 4,000 officers, 86,000 trained 
soldiers, 12,500 trained soldiers in their twenty-fifth to twenty-sixth 
year, 17,000 recruits in their first year of service, a total of 4,380 
officers and 118,300 other ranks. The war deficit will therefore be 
120 officers and 12,200 other ranks, of whom nearly 7,000 are to bo 
specially enlisted as drivers and for other duties in the Army Service 
Corps and Army Medical Corps. 

The deficiency in officers can be made good from the unattached 
list and reserve of officers list. The net deficiency in other ranks 
(about 22,000 if recruits are excluded) must be met by the allotment 
of members of rifle clubs and by the enlistment of men who have 
previously served. 

1 Present proposals provide for only two Field Artillery brigades of four-gun batteries, and one four- 
gun howitzer battery and ammunition column per division. 

2 Includes three ])ermanent batteries for Light Horse brigades. 

3 This establishment includes headquarters and district stalls, many of whom would not be available 
for the field army or for garrisons. Also includes personnel of six permanent batteries of Field Artillery, 
as well as the permanent Garrison Artillery and Engineers for defended ports. 

* In estimating the numbers available in 1919-20, an annual wastage of 5 per cent has been allowed for 
mortality, medical unfitness, and other casualties. 



64 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



Reserve Service Voluntary. 



11. From 1920-21 onward a quota of approximately 12,500 trained 
men will annually complete their service with the colors, but the 
defense act only provides for their vohnitary enrollmerit in the 
reserve forces (sec. 42) on completion of their period of compulsory 
service. 

Horses and Mechanical Transport. 

12. Approximately 24,000 riding and 25,000 th"aft and pack horses 
will be required to provide for war establishment in the year 1919-20. 
Some 560 riding horses and 1,120 draft horses are available in peace 
with permanent units and in remount depots. 

In AustraUa there are about 2,250,000 horses, ;.nd of these 20 per 
cent (or 450,000) m;vy be regarded tis suitable for miUtory purposes. 
Section 67 of the defense act provides that any horses can be im- 
pressed by officers authorized by the regulations. 

A scheme foi- the registration of horses is at present being formu- 
lated. 

Arms, Ammunition, Clothing, Stores, Etc. 

13. It is the definite pohcy of the Commonwealth Government to 
equip fully the forces as they are gradually and annually augmented, 
until they attrdn their full strength in 1920. Thus in a given j^ear, 
there are available for use the various articles in possession of the 
troops and those held rea.dy f^r issue to the new quota of troops on the 
1st of July annually, plus such additional articles as for various reasons 
are held in stock. 

Since the inception of universal trainmg, the department has 

expended nearly £1,000,000 on the provision of new equipment for 

troops (not including armament, ammunition, equipment for fixed 

defense, etc.). 

Instruction of the Militia. 

14. The active miUtia is instructed by the follov.ing professional 
staff: 



Field Artillery 

(larrison Artillery 

Engineers 

Light Horse 

Infantry 

Senior cadets 

Army Service Corps . . 
Army Medical Corps. 



Total. 



Establishment, 
1913-14. 



OfiBcers. 



>79 

25 



Other 
ranks. 



Strength on Feb. 28, 
1914. 



OfiBcers. 



179 
2 



Other 
ranks. 



22 
11 
15 



552 



1 Also perform duties as brigade majors of Light Horse and Infantry brigades and brigade areas or as 
permanent adjutants of Light Horse regiments and Infantry battalions. 

2 Also perform duties as assistant directors of transport and supply. 

MiUtia officers and noncommissioned officers are instructed a.t 
schools and cLisses of instruction for the various arms, held under the 
direction of the General Staff from time to time in each district, at 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



65 



convenient centers. Those attending are granted subsistence and, 
in addition, quarters or tentage. 

Colleges, Technical Schools, Etc. 

15. From 1916 onward the Koyal Military College at Duntroon 
will produce some 30 graduates annually who will be commissioned 
in the permanent forces. 

Musketry is taught at the Kandwick Musketry School, and 
musketry classes are regul;;rly conducted in each district. A school 
of gunnery is estubhshed at Sydney for the instruction of ofhcers and 
noncommissioned oflicers of the permanent and mihtia Garrison 
Artillery. SignaUng instruction is provided by means of periodical 
schools held in each district. Field Artillery schools for militia 
ofhcers and noncommissioned officers are conducted in connection 
with the practice camps of the permanent batteries. 

United service institutions exist, or shortly will exist, at the capital 
of each State. Tliej^ are subsidized by the Defense Department. 
Lectures are given and war games are held at these institutions 
during the winter months. 

Numbers Trained. 

16. The following figures show the strength of the permanent and 



mihtia forces during the past 10 years: 



Year. 


Strength of 

permanent 

forces on 

December 

31. 


Strength of 
active citi- 
zen forces 
on Decem- 
ber 31. 


Year. 


Strength of 

permanent 

forces on 

December 

31. 


Strength of 
active citi- 
zen forces 
on Decem- 
ber 31. 


1904 


1,096 
1,098 
1,116 
1,119 
1,201 


18,524 
19,595 
20,245 
20, 170 
21,936 


1909 


1,262 
1,455 
1,727 
1,998 
2,468 


22, 141 


1905 


1910 


21,877 


1906.. 


1911 


21,960 


1907 


1912 


1 33, 955 


1908 


1913 


2 45, 915 









1 Includes 16,211 liable for service under universal training obligation. 

2 Includes 33,601 liable for service under universal training obligation. 

Senior Cadets. 

17. The present senior cadet organization came into force on 1st 
July, 1911. 

There are at present 92 senior cadet battalions, comprising 922 
companies with a membership of 2,285 officers (of whom 1,066 are 
liable for training) and 86,899 senior cadets. Courses for training 
senior cadet officers and noncommissioned officers are held periodically 
at various training centers and are well aj^tended, 800 officers and 877 
noncommissioned officers having undergone a course since 1st July, 
1911. 

Senior cadet officers are also permitted to attend the militia infantry 
schools and to present themselv^es for the militia infantry ofTicers' 
examination, those who qualif}^ being granted a mihtia ofhcers' 
commission on the unattached hst of the military forces. Up to date, 
50 senior cadet ofhcers have so qualffied and have been granted com- 
missions on the unattached list. 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 5 



66 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OP NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The senior c.idets are not required to attend camp. 
The estimated expenditm^e on account of senior cadets for the year 
1913-14 is £140,000. 

Junior Cadets. 

18. The number of bo3's born in the years 1900 and 1901 who have 
been mediciill}^ examined is 50,510, and of these 49,291 were declared 
fit to undergo training. Training is compulsory in all schools except 
those situated in districts declared exempt. The number of the 
schools carrying out the training on 31st December, 1913, was 8,044, 
with a totrl of 55,850 junior cadets in tr;aning. 

One hundred and sixty-nine courses of instruction for teachers were 
held by the Defense Department between 1st October, 1911, and 31st 
December, 1913, and 4,103 male and female school-teachers qualified. 

The estimated expenditure on junior cadet training for the current 
year is £2G,814. Further details concerning the physical traming of 
boys and girls are given in Appendix F. 

Rifle Clubs. 

19. Eifle clubs constitute the only reserve for the mihtia forces. 
Every person a.ccepted as a member is attested in the reserve forces. 
Members do no military training, but there is a certain proportion of 
old soldiers, regulars or militia, amongst them, and I nave noticed 
that, when being assembled for inspection or to be addressed, they 
show themselves capable of performing the more elementary military 
movements. -Altogether, there are 1,133 rifle clubs, with a mem- 
bership of 47,500, organized in 64 rifle club unions. The unions of 
each State are formed into a district rifle association, and the ( om- 
monwealth coimcil of rifle associations acts as an advisory board to the 
minister when required. Clubs are eiTtitlcd to Government rifles on 
loan, and 230 rounds of ammunition (or 250 rounds of miniature 
ammunition) for each member annually. 

Of the 28,540 members who are fit for active service, 19,700 are 
allotted on mobilization to units. (See Appendix G.) 

Grants not exceeding £150 are allowed toward the construction 
and maintenance of a rifle range for each club. 

The total cost of rifle associations and clubs for the year 1913-14 
is estimated at £132,000. 

II. NATIONAL OEGAXIZATION FOR WAR. 

Training Scheme Not in Itself Sufficient. 

20. The organization of a nation for war is one thing, the military 
training of its youth is another, ajid a totally different thing. The 
attention of Australia ha.s hitherto been concentrated on the training, 
and naturally so seeing that the inauguration of a system of compul- 
sory service for aU boys and young men between the ages of 12 and 
26 is a big enough business in itself to engross the whole mind of 
the nation during the initial stages of the experiment. Nor would 
the military authorities have been justified in laying the foundations 
of a real national organization until they gained some assurance by 
experience of the training system, and by observation of the national 
attitude to defense questions, as to the scale on which they might 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 67 

venture to build. Now, however, the time is almost ripe for consol- 
idating all existing forces, national as well as military, into a carefully- 
planned instrument for war. 

Sufficiency of Trained Personnel. 

21. Every mobilization scheme starts from the completion of the 
individual units to their war establishm_ent in men, horses, and 
equipment of all kinds. In Australia, by 1919-20, when the first 
batch of trainees are due to leave the colors, all units will be fairly 
up to the mark in each of these respects. I use the qualification 
because there will still be some serious gaps. The peace strength of 
units will be 12,320 short of war establishment or, if the contingent 
of recruits is eliminated, the deficit will be no less than 29,000 men. 
Also, there will be a number of extra officers and men required at 
once on mobilization for the expansion of district stafl^s, for pay and 
record offices, for ordnance and supply departments, for remount 
depots and other existing institutions, as well as for the creation of 
many lines of communication units. As these needs will quite 
certainly arise in war, it is better to face the situation in peace time 
and make some sort of provision for them now. 

Maintenance of an Army in War. 

22. Kecently I had occasion in Canada to refer, in the following 
words, to the need for machinery for maintaining an army in the 
field: 

The army possessing no system for its maintenance in the field is like an elephant 
that has lost its trunk. It starves amidst plenty. All the millions in the United 
Kingdom could not keep the cadres of the small Crimean Army up to strength because 
there was no feeding organization in existence. Depot cadres are an indispensable 
additional adjunct to every field army which is conducted on business principles. A 
depot establishment calculated at the rate of 50 per cent of the field army is usually 
taken as the minimum. 

I repeat the same thing now in Australia. Not only should numer- 
ous depot cadres, with experienced officers and noncommissioned 
officers be established at once on mobilization, but men, already 
trained to arms to some extent, should be forthcoming to fill them. 
Calculating depot requirements at 50 per cent of the field army, 
about 2,250 officers and 65,250 men would be wanted for this purpose 
alone, over and above the 29,000 officers and men required to com- 
plete the establishments of the field army. To meet this deficiency 
of approximately 100,000 men, the only asset available would be 
some 17,000 recriuts. 

Rifle Clubs as a Reserve. 

23. Un4er existing arrangements members of rifle clubs are relied 
on to supply all such deficiencies. As a temporary and provisional 
measure, this is the best that can be done. At the moment there is 
no possible substitute. Nor have I a v\'ord to say against rifle clubs 
considered as an adjunct to the militia. In Switzerland they exist 
in hundreds, with a membership well over 150,000. They are a real 
national institution; they have considerable esprit de corps; prizes 
of high value are given for shooting; and the club rifle competitions 
are to the Cantons much what cricket and football matches are to a 



68 THE AUSTEALIAX SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

British community. The mihtary authorities recognize their vakie 
by giving State grants amounting to about £55,000 per annum, and 
the rifle chibs justify this recognition both by giving the trainee extra 
musketry practice and by keeping the reservist well up to the mark. 
But in Switzerland there is no idea of regarding the rifle club as an 
integral part of the militia, in the sense that its members, as such, 
have a liability to service that is not incumbent on the rest of the 
nation. It is in every sense a mere adjunct to the militia. 

Need for a Reserve. 

24. If, under a militia system, the numbers under training are 
msufficient to complete the held army itself as well as all its war 
establishments, there is then only one thing to be done. Ad(^quate 
reserves should be formed, the system being modified, if necessary, 
to make this possible. To say that a man is liable to serve his 
country up to his 60th year shows a patriotic intention; to make it 
perfectly plain how, and in what way, he is at various periods of his 
life to carry out his service is to translate vague feeling into that 
genuine piece of business known as military orgaiiization. 

The vSwiss example illustrates my meaning. There a man's service 
is normally divided into three categories: Twentieth to thirty-second 
year in the elite, or active army; thirt3'-third to f(>rtieth year in the 
iandwehr, or reserve of the active arm 3^; forty-first to forty-eighth 
year in the landsturm, or territorial reserve. 

My example is given for the sake of illumination — not of com- 
parison. Australia is not Switzerland, and the only inference I 
wish drawn is that so long as the rifle clubs form the only reserves 
for the active army, AustraUan defense must rest on too narrow a 
foundation. 

Reserve service, be it observed, does not necessarily im})Ose any 
sort of obligation at all upon the individual in peace. 

Departmental Organization. 

25. The formation of a reserve would serve another purpose, 
besides that of enabling the active army to be completed to war 
establishment, and of replenishing its ranks as they were thinned by 
war casualties. The existence of such a body would greatly facilitate 
the process of national organization. In my introductory remarks I 
suggested that much expenditure found necessary in a regular army 
could be avoided by a militia in time of peace, provided the national 
resources were adequately organized for war. Thus, for militia 
purposes, many technical units like railway pioneer corps, railway 
administrative personnel, works staff for lines of communication, 
telegraph units, postal corps, and so forth, can be, and should be, 
provided at trifling cost to army funds if the various departments of 
State are only willing to cooperate heartily with the military authori- 
ties. The soldiers, in such case, have only to explain to the depart- 
ments what is wanted of them. The actual method of meeting that 
want had far better be left to the departments to work out for them- 
selves. But it stands to reason that in any case the task of creating 
such bodies will be very greatly facilitated if, in addition to the 
trainees belonging to the department, an older class of reservist is 
also on the spot and available. The work of these departmental 
corps being almost entirely technical, the amount of military training 
they require is comparatively limited. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 69 

Telegraphs in War. 

26. Having said so much I think it will be better if I make myself 
quite clear by giving an illustration. Let us take the telegraph 
department. In the event of invasion such portion of the wState tele- 
graph system as came within the area of military operations would 
have to be placed under mihtary control. A military director of 
telegraphs would have to be appointed and, unquestionably, he 
should be an official of the department. But he should not come 
quite rav\^ (militarily speaking) to his important position. He should 
have held a dormant commission previously in peace which would 
have enal)led him to get into touch with the General Staff, and thus 
learn what would be expected of him and his department in war. 
Assistant directors of telegraphs should also be nominated by the 
department. These men would, in peace, be the technical advisers 
of the General Staff, as well as being the military advisers of the 
departmental authorities. They would have a foot in the Defense 
Department as well as in their own department. 

Field Telegraph Units. 

27. But preparation for militarizing, under departmental auspices, 
any portion or portions of the telegraph S3"stem of the country would 
not, in itself, suffice. The department must also be ready to place 
miits in the field to act in close conjunction with the field army and 
assist in maintaining communication not only with the permanent 
telegraph system, but also between the various columns engaged in 
operations against the enemy. The personnel of such a unit should 
consist chiefly of skilled operators and linemen — young men who 
have recently had military experience. Their training in peace 
should be supervised by the director of telegraphs designated, acting 
in conjunction with the General Staft'. In the selection, organiza- 
tion, and technical training, departmental convenience must come 
first. I mean that such drill and purely military exercises as may 
be deemed essential to these men while they are trainees should be 
carried out with local units whose headquarters were near the men's 
homes. Otherwise they would be organized on a nonterritorial 
basis. 

These telegraph units, though working ahead of the main telegraph 
system, and acting under the orders of the army commanders, would 
still remain an integral portion of their departmental organization. 
Individually, they would be appointed and replaced in the field and 
their numbers augmented or decreased, as circumstances might 
require, under arrangements made by the director of telegraphs. 

General Application of the Principle. 

28. 1 have chosen the telegraph department for my example because 
it shows better than any other department, except perhaps that of 
railways, the helplessness of the soldier in such matters unless the 
technical authorities are prepared to come to his aid and organize 
themselves for war. The telegraph operator is an expert whom the 
military authorities could not possibly, under a militia system, pro- 
duce for themselves. He rapidly becomes useless unless he is daily 
sending and receiving messages, and only the telegraph department 



70 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF ISTATIONAL DEFENSE. 

can hope to produce the finished article. Similarly, the Defense 
Department must rely on the railway authorities, on the public works 
department, and on the post office, not only to take such steps in 
peace as will insure their system being readily adapted for military 
purposes in war, but also for organizing technical personnel on a 
pioneer basis, so that it may be capable of moving ahead of the main 
systems and of working in close conjunction with the field armies of 
the Commonwealth. 

Technical Cooperation Essential. 

29. Nor do the great departments of State stand alone in this 
matter. Under a militia system, where the nation is the army and 
the army is the nation, every professional body and technical union 
in the country can, if it will, further the cause of national defense by 
placing its advice and its machinery at the disposal of the naval and 
military authorities. Though the army be raised and maintained on 
the compulsory system, there will ever remain a vast amount of work 
which must be done by voluntary effort in war time if, that is to say, 
it is to be done efficiently. The colleges, the institutes, the unions 
which control the destinies of the doctor, the surgeon, the engineer, 
the veterinary surgeon, the motorist, and the motorcyclist — every 
such body can, by taking thought, add its ciuota to the sum of 
national safety. National organization for war rests, in the first 
instance, not with the military authorities of the Commonwealth, 
but with the nation itself. 

III. AREAS AND UNITS. 
Existing Area Organization. 

30. The combination of duties whereby a permanent adjutant 
finds himself saddled with territorial work is a peace arrangement; 
it is, that is to say, one of those makeshifts which is hardly distin- 
guishable from a counterfeit. In war, the adjutant would accorn- 
pany his militia battalion, thus dislocating the entire work of his 
training area at the identical crucial instant when, under a happier 
organization, it should justify the years of money and effort expended 
upon it. True, under existing arrangements, it is proposed to patch 
up the machine by doubling up two traming areas on mobilization 
so that they will form one war area. As, however, territorial work 
will be incomparably brisker in war than in peace, it is obvious that 
if any change at all is to be introduced at such a juncture, it should 
take the form of halving the area, not of doubling it. But any change 
at such a moment of transition is military anathema; it means im- 
provization, and improvization is ec[uivalent to asking for trouble. 
Therefore, such a makeshift should only be resorted to if the difficul- 
ties in the way of sounder provision are absolutely insuperable. 

Permanent Staff for Units. 

31. Lord Kitchener divided the country into 215 training areas, 
but made no provision for permanent adjutants, nor hi his scheme 
did he definitely allot noncommissioned officers to militia units. 

Unfortunately, it is not possible for me, in the absence of Gen. 
Kirkpatrick, to say exactly what was in the field marshal's mind, or 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 71 

whether he intended the militia units to work out their own salvation 
without any professional guidance whatsoever. Possibly he may 
have so intended and may have had in his mind the analogy of 
Switzerland, where certainly militia units do exist and flourish 
without any aid from a regular adjutant. 

Swiss Conditions. 

32. But if so, I may perhaps be permitted very respectfully to point 
out that the Swiss, especially the German-speaking Swiss, is a totally 
different creature in the matter of military character from the Brit- 
isher, and still more so from the markedly individualistic Australian. 

Secondly, that the danger menacing the Swiss, though not so ter- 
rible as that menacing the Australian, is still infinitely more imminent, 
seeing, so to say, that it crouches for its spring at the very point 
of his bayonet. 

Thirdly, that every Swiss militia officer can, by traveling for three 
or four hours in a comfortable railway carriage, witness the training 
and maneuvers of the finest and most formidable armies in the world. 
The Swiss Government take full advantage of such facilities and 
constantly dispatch their militia officers to work with the regular 
troops of the great European powers. 

Fourthly, that Switzerland is self-contained and concentrated to 
an extent a born Australian who has never traveled would hardly be 
able to imagine. The whole of that country, though it probably 
exercises as great an influence on the world of ideas as the entire block 
of central Europe or the United States of America, is only half the 
size of Tasmania and is probably poorer in natural resources than 
some quarter of that ricli fragment of the Australian continent.^ 
Had it not been for the superb military qualities of the Swiss as dis- 
played against the Austrians, Charles the Bold, and Napoleon, no one 
would ever have heard of them. They would long ago have ceased to 
exist. But they do exist, and by their very smallness they gain this 
advantage — that the brigade, divisional, and general staffs can con- 
stantly watch and supervise the units and advise the militia adjutant 
how to direct his steps. 

British Conditions. 

33. I mention these points as it may be useful to have them on 
record. Actually, the impossibility of the Australian Militia dis- 
pensing with permanent adjutants had already impressed itself on 
the ]\mitary Board before my arrival, and in so far as it may be proper 
for me to do so I heartily associate myself with their decision. I 
have had long and intimate connection with Volunteer, Territorial, 
Mlitia, and Special Reserve units in the old country, and I can not 
imagine how either they or their Australian comrade corps could 
expect to make real progress without the assistance of a certain 
modicum of permanent staff. 

Things being so, obviously the existing scheme of organization needs 
reviemng. For neither the finances of the country nor possibly the 
output of Duntioon would be equal to providing 130 permanent 
adjutants in addition to 215 permanent area officers, as well as filUng 
the estabhshment of permanent units, headquarters, and district 
staffs, etc. 

1 Swifzerland, 15,976 square miles; Tasmania, 26,215 square miles. 



72 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Proposed Reorganization. 

34. After discussion mth the Adjutant General and with district 
commandants, it would seem that the only practical solution of the 
problem is also the best solution, namely, the application now, in 
peace, of the method best suited to stand the ordeal of war. 

Units must be given an adjutant, and that adjutant's duties should 
be entirely sej^arated from territorial functions. 

Simultaneously a process of amalgamation should be undertaken 
as regards the jiresent training areas. 

The existing battahon area should, in future, be taken as "the 
area." "The area" itself should be subdivided into training areas/ 
each under a permanent noncommissioned officer instructor. 

The effect of the pro]:)Osed change is shown in tabular form in 
Appendix H. Its effect works out at a figure considerably less than 
the cost of the present scheme when fully matured. 

The Area. 

35. Not the least of the numerous advantages of such a reorgani- 
zation is that the authority of one man, the militia battahon com- 
manding oificer, wiU be supreme throughout the battahon area. The 
whole of the instructional, clerical, and administrative staffs com- 
prised therein wiU act under his orders, and he will thus be in a posi- 
tion to prevent any clash of interests between mihtia and cadets. If 
my proposals on training in Section V aie adopted (proposals very 
closely alhed to this question of area oiganization), the mihtia com- 
manding officer should be quite as mucli interested in the efficiency 
of his cadets (the bulk of whom will join his battahon) as in the 
efficiency of his own battahon. 

Staff Required. 

36. The permanent staff required for an area should be as follows: 
1 adjutant antl 1 quartermaster sergeant (warrant officer) to accom- 
pany the battahon in war; 1 area oflicer and 4 to 8 training-area non- 
commissioned offiicers to remain in the area on mobihzation. 

Adjutants and instructors for Light Horse and Artillery and in- 
structors for other arms will be required in addition. 

Duties op Staff. 

37. As permanent officers become available I recommend units, 
rather than areas, having a first call on their services. For a long 
time to come, therefore, the area work will be carried out as at present 
by temporary area officers seconded from the militia. It is for the 
militia commanding officer to fix the lespective functions of the 
adjutant and of the area officer. Normally, the adjutant should 
attend to aU instructional work in the area, both of the militia and of 
the cadets, the role of the area officer being mainly territorial, e. g., 
registration of cadets, their medical examination, their transfer to the 
militia, etc. 

1 It has been suggested to me that the expression "tramiag area" is cumbersome and rather meaningless. 
Some such term as "subarea" might, under my proposals, be more to the point. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 73 

Work in Areas. 

38. Subject to the militia commanding officer's instructions, the 
quartermaster sergeant should be considered available to assist the 
area officer in the care of, and accounting for, the equipment and 
stores of the area. 

For the execution of the clerical work of the area, I recommend the 
grant of a small weekly allowance, the area officer being left free to 
make his own arrangements, ]:>rovided he does not employ any of his 
training-area noncommissioned officers for this purpose. For one 
thing, it is extravagant to use a man drawing pay as a skilled instructor 
for such a purpose; for another, these noncommissioned officers ought 
to be fully employed with the work of their traming areas. 

The Brigade Major. 

39. Under existing arrangements the brigade major is, Hke some 
of the area officers, called on to act in a dual ca])acity. He is, in 
peace, the central pivot of the territorial work of the training areas 
comprised in his brigade area, and he is also brigade major of the 
Infantry brigade, which he is destined to accompany in war. 

Here again is a glaring case of a man serving two masters who will, 
in time of stress, be obliged to put one of them entirely in the cart. 
In other words, it is even more pressing to disentangle the brigade 
major from his peace administrative duties than it is to free the hands 
of those ]:)ermanent adjutants who are to be placed in charge of areas. 

Therefore, in Section VI, I am making proposals which, if carried 
out, will cause all corres]:;ondence connected with territorial adminis- 
tration and, to a large extent, with unit administi-ation as well, to 
pass by the brigade major's door altogether, and he should thus be 
placed in a position where he can apply his mind much more fully to 
his purely military duties than is now the case. 

Reorganization a Gradual Process. 

40. The proposals made in the preceding paragraphs can not be 
given effect to immediately, or even simultaneously. The new order 
of things only becomes ] ossible as permanent adjutants are appointed 
for militia battalions. Till then the existing training-area officers 
had better cany on as they are now doing. Similarly, it might be 
rash, and ] premature, to relieve area brigade majors foithwith of their 
present duty of supervising the territorial work of the training areas. 
Where, however, permanent adjutants for militia battalions have 
been already appointed and as they are appointed in the future, the 
new distribution of duties (par. 47) could at once be put into opera- 
tion in the battalion areas concerned; and, simultaneously, brigade 
majors might be reheved of all responsibility for the territorial work 
of those areas. 

Staff Proposed is a Minimum. 

41. I most earnestly hope that the estabhshment of noncommis- 
sioned officers I have proj^osed for training areas will not be cut down 
for financial reasons. Judged by the old country standards fixed for 
the Territorial force, this establishment makes a very modest showing. 
Crediting the Australian personnel with aU the quickness — all the 
good will — in the world, still I am convinced that four noncommis- 



74 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

sioned officers in town areas and eight in country areas are a minimum 
allowance if the training and instruction, not only of the militiamen 
but of the cadets as well, is to be properly attended to. For myseK, 
I would prefer to see economies effected in almost any direction rather 
than by i educing the numbers of the permanent instructional staff. 

IV. SYSTEM OF TRAINING. 
Importance of Recruit Training. 

42. The influences which go to mold the human side of a military 
machine into fighting form are too various and too vast to be stated 
simply, although the French, with characteristic audacity, have made 
the attempt mth their phrase, "Disciphne makes the main force of 
armies." But, without aiming at so sweejnng a definition, we may 
at least assume that the period wherein discipline itself, plus many 
other military virtues, is taught to the young reciuit, must lie at the 
root of whatever military efficiency the fully trained soldier may 
possess. 

Hence, in the great standing armies of Europe, we find two or three 
months dedicated each year to the recruit, the services of an enormous 
staff of professional officers and noncommissioned officers being kept 
concentrated upon him during that long period. Hence, too, the fact 
that the ultimate inspection of the recruits by the higher military 
authorities is regarded as one of the most important military functions 
of the whole year. Switzerland, in this matter, makes her miUtia 
follow the example of the regular armies, and in the United Kingdom 
also the Special Reserve, which is the legitimate descendant of the 
old mihtia, has a long and thorough period of probationary service.^ 

The Australian Experiment. 

43. In this matter of recruit training Australia has struck out on a 
line of her own. Australian militiamen undergo a period of recruit 
training equivalent to 16 days, of which only 8 are spent in camp. 
If the efficiency of the trainee really depended upon so minute a 
fleabite of training, the outlook on the far horizons ol the twentieth 
century would be somewhat blue. But the recruits' course wiU not 
stand alone — it will have six years' cadet training at its back. The 
shortness of the Australian recruit training, as compared with the 
concentrated course which other nations have adopted, is to be com- 
pensated for by a very long and thoroughly serious preparation in the 
grade of cadet. That, at least, is the intention, and strange indeed 
will it be if a countrv in which no wars have yet been waged, should 
at its first serious attempt hit the nail on the head. With courage and 
perseverance Australia may yet be able to boast that she has shown 
the way to all the great military powers to Switzerland and to the 
old country — ot raising powerful armies for home defense with a 
minimum tax on the priceless time of the adult male worker. 

1 Thus, in Switzerland, recruit training is conducted at certain centers, partly by professional and partly 
by militia officers and noncommissioned officers. The recruits live for the time being in barracks. The 
period of training is 65 days in the Infantry and Engineers, 75 days in the Artillery, and 90 days in the 
Cavalry. In the United Kingdom the recruit training of the Special Reserve is from 4 to 6 months. 



II 



THE AUSTKALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 75 

Existing Difficulties. 

44. But courage and perseverance will be indispensable. There 
is no use mj pretending that Australian cadet training has already 
justified itself as a full substitute lor a prolonged period of adult 
recruit training. And, if I now feel called on to criticise the cadets 
as I have found them, it will not, I hope, be thought that I am 
reflecting in the smallest degree on the Incls themselves, or on the 
authorities from highest to lowest, who are in any way responsible for 
the execution of the scheme of cadet training. Nothing is further 
from my thoughts. The authorities at headquarters are keenly alive 
to the importance of the great work of army building they have on 
hand; the self-sacrificing efforts of the cadet officers are beyond all 
praise, and nothing can be finer than the keennesss and good will of the 
cadets. Never have a people put their backs more manfully into the 
task of making bricks with just about a quarter ration of straw, in 
which metaphor the cadets may be. taken as the bricks and the 
instructional staff for the straw. For cadet officers have most of them 
had little experience; professional instructors are few; the militia 
has had the lion's share of their ser\ices, and, hitherto, militia com- 
manding officers have had no real inducement to take an interest in 
the well-being of their future recruits. 

No Need for Pessimism. 

45. Small wonder then if militia commanding officers have repeat- 
edly told me that most of their recruits come to them still ignorant 
of the rudiments of drill so much so that, too often, the principal 
difficulty of the battalion instructor lies in eradicating laults due to 
initial faulty training. So it comes, too, that many officers speak 
as if the experiment of making cadet training a substitute for a long 
period of recruit training, as in the Swiss and other regular or militia 
systems, were bound in tlie end to fail. But, in so speaking, they 
have, I am convinced, made too small an allowance for the troubles 
and difficulties that are inevitable in the inauguration of any original 
scheme. I myself believe that, with so much good will to work upon, 
these difficulties will grow less with each succeeding year until, finally, 
they vanish so completely that the croaker of to-day will be able to 
pose proudly before his descendants as one of the pioneers of the 
movement. 

Leveling up Necessary. 

46. The striking success achieved wherever environment has hap* 
pened to be favorable is evidence that Australia is really on the right 
track, and that the difficulties she is experiencing are only the small 
but distressing hitches which have taken place in the earUer stages 
of every and any great invention. All that is required is tliat in each 
succeeding year a general heave upwards should be given to the 
whole system under which cadet training is carried out. 

If the Empire understood the full significance of this Australian 
experiment, prayers would continually be in process of being offered 
up in tlie churches for its success. But as most people in the northern 
hemisphere have been carefully misinformed by interested fanatics. 



76 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

the Australians will lia,ve in the long run to trust to their own good 
sense and patriotism to pull the business through. Now, here are 
two of the main conditions for success: 

First, the cadet curriculum must be progressive and thoroughly 
systematized, so that officers commanding militia units may have some 
assurance that all their recruits, on joining, shall have attained a 
given standard. 

Secondly, the cadet instructors must themselves be worthy, not 
only in aspiration, but in esperience and character, for the perform- 
ance of the high duty they have undertaken to carry through. 

Cadets in Relation to the Militia. 

47. Once the curriculum has been systematized the cadets must be 
brought into the closest relations possible with the militia battalion 
the bulk of them will join later on in their careers. The militia 
commanding officer will then have a direct personal interest in pro- 
moting the training and the interests of his cadets; the cadets, Icnow- 
ing that their efforts are being watched by their future commander, 
will play up all they can to please him. 

Training can not be considered apart from organization. The 
welding into a homogeneous whole of the cadet and recruit periods 
can only be achieved when the authority of one man, the militia 
commanding officer, has been made supreme throughout an area 
embracing not only his own battalion but the local cadets as well. 
In Section IV, I have made proposals which, if given effect to, will 
render possible this ideal state of affairs. Under these proposals, the 
instructional staff in areas, and training areas, will be available to 
instruct indiscriminately both cadet and militia recruits. Thus the 
present shortage of thorouglily qualified instructors for cadets will, 
to some extent, be met. 

Recruit Training in Future. 

48. When the present training scheme has matured some seven- 
eighths of a battalion will consist of trained soldiers— of men, that 
is, who have been passed as fit to take their place in the ranks. 
The further instruction and training of these men should, on principle, 
rest with the officers and noncommissioned officers who will lead them 
in war. Too much interference in their instruction by the permanent 
instructional staff can only tend to destroy the initiative and the self- 
reliance of the militia officers and noncommissioned officers. There- 
fore, with every year that passes, the noncommissioned instructor will 
become more and more free to devote his attention to the cadets in his 
training area, and to the latest joined recruits who have just left the 
cadets. ^Moreover, under my proposals in Section IV, the number of 
permanent noncommissioned officer instructors in areas will be 
considerabl}' greater than at present. In these circumstances then 
the cadets should be able to count on getting a far larger share of 
the permanent instructor's time than is now possible. If, further, 
some means could be devised for giving militia officers and non- 
commissioned officers a direct incentive to train cadets, the path 
would be quite clear for laying down a standard of efficiency, and 
that a high one, for cadets in each year of their service. This would 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 77 

imply progressive training, and progressive training implies variety 
and interest in the work. 

It is too much to expect of any reflective youth that he should keep 
up his enthusiasm in doing much the same thmg over and over again 
from the age of 14 to 18, when m all other respects he feels himself 
making such rapid progress. I consider it of vital importance that 
each year of cadet service should mark the inclusion of at least 
some subjects differentiating it from the years which have gone 
before/ 

Training of the Officer and Noncommissioned Officer. 

49. ^Militia officers and noncommissioned officers would also be the 
gainers were their courses of training and instruction worked out on 
well-considered, systematic lines. The brigade major, acting under 
his brigadier's orders, is clearly the proper person to supervise this 
duty, iind I have accordingly suggested (par. 40) his being relieved 
as far as possible of administrative and territorial work. Under my 
proj)Osals, the energies of the brigade major, and the four ])ermanent 
adjutants acting under him, would be concentrated on the higher 
instruction of the militia ofiicer and noncommissioned officer. The 
noncommissioned officers in charge of training areas should also 
find themselves much more free than the}^ are at present to undertake 
the trainmg of the militia recruit, and of the cadet. 

Here we have a ship-shape, logical skeleton system where responsi- 
bilities are well defhied, whilst overlapping and duplication should 
become the exception instead of being the rule. 

All Training under General Staff. 

50. The organization of training on the lines indicated will entail 
a redistribution of duties at headquarters, and consequently in dis- 
tricts. The distinction hitherto observed between cadet training and 
militia training, one being under the Adjutant General and the other 
under the Chief of the General Staft', should cease. In future all 
training and instruction of a military nature, from the commence- 
ment of the senior cadet's service, should be developed and con- 
trolled under the auspices of the Chief of the General Stafi". The 
physical training of the junior cadets had better remain for the pres- 
ent with the Adjutant General. Later on, it will be for consideration 
whether the control of this training also could not with advantage 
be transferred to the General Staft". 

v. OFFICE WORK. 

The War System. 

51. The Field Service Regulations, which are based upon our dearly 
bought South African experiences, contain the following paragraph: 

OfBce work in the field is to be restricted as to what is absolutely iudispeusablej no 
office work ^\^ll be transacted -with a unit of service in the field that can be possibly- 
dealt with at a stationary office. 

' To work out such a program requires knowledge, experience, and imagination. Besides drill, such 
subjects as physical training, miniature rifle shooting, scouting, elementary field works, and signaling 
should be practiced on progressive lines. Occasionally the tedium of drill may be usefully broken by a 
story culled from military history. The more an instructor attempts the more he is likely to achieve. 



78 THE AUSTEALIAN" SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

To carry out the principle embodied in this extract, "record 
offices" with specially trained staffs have, since the South African 
war, been established for every corps and department of the Imperial 
Army; pay accounting has, as far as circumstances permit, been 
detached from units under the so-called Dover system, and simple 
but effective means have been devised for keeping both record and 
pay offices in touch with the rank and file, no matter where in the 
world their units may be stationed. Further, army books and forms 
used on active service have been greatly simplified, and these war 
forms have wherever practicable replaced the more elaborate docu- 
ments previously used in peace. 

South African Experience. 

52. In other words, efforts have been made, and are stiU being 
made, in the Imperial Army to apply in peace a system which actual, 
recent war experience has demonstrated will be fairly war proof. The 
War Office entered upon the South African campaign under the 
impression that a unit could be made to consume its own smoke in 
aU matters of interior economy. Never were the heads of a depart- 
ment more rudely undeceived. Earely has any body of men oeen 
more freely abused. Yet, judging the matter now more calmly, it 
may be admitted that no average administrator could have foreseen 
that when the forces in South Africa were once fairly on the move aU 
traces of any man who left his unit would be lost, alike by relatives 
and the military authorities, for weeks, months, or sometimes forever. 
The commanding officer was aware only that the man had disappeared 
and no machinery existed anywhere for systematically keeping in 
touch with him. A so-called casualty office was, it is true, hastily 
improvised at Cape Town and a large number of officers and clerks 
were therein employed, and certainly improvised methods such as 
these were better than nothing — and that is about all that could be 

said. 

Previous System. 

53. Again, the pay lists which officers commanding squadrons and 
companies were called on to keep prior to and during the South Afri- 
can war were caviar to the general — not to speak of the subaltern. 
Even in peace, when the services of trained pa}^ sergeants were avail- 
able, these accounts were the bane of the average regimental officer. 
What then could be expected m war, where irregular officers were far 
too preoccupied with the idea of administering a beating to the enemy 
to dream of administering anything so tame as a pay sheet ? Usually 
the Gordian knot was cut, as in classic fable, by the sword. No pay 
lists were kept up at aU, and the subsequent business of settling up 
was a prolonged and a profoundly extravagant operation to that 
grand old milch cow, the British public. 

Adoption op War System Recommended. 

54. In the minor affairs of war, as in the greatest operations, sim- 
plicity, both of conception and design, is the hall mark of the true 
metal In Part II, Chapter XVI, of the Field Service Regulations 
the war system as regards office work — an extremely simple system — 
is fully described, and I suggest respectfully that this system should, 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 79 

as far as local conditions admit, be accepted for peace work in Aus- 
tralia. Not only will the transition from a peace to a war footing be 
thus more easily effected, but under ordinary routine conditions the 
existing stram of excessive correspondence, whether with units or in 
staff offices, should be very sensibly eased. 

Procedure Necessary. 

55. One of the first results of revising the present Australian system 
in the light of the sim])le and practical war system referred to in the 
previous paragraph will be the institution of an inquiry into — 

(1) How far can units be relieved in peace of the work of register- 
ing information regarding the individual militiaman and of preparing 
his pay account ? 

(2) Supposing units are to be relieved of the responsibility, where 
and how should such woik be executed? 

(3) How is the information affecting the man's record of service 
a,nd his pay to find its way to the place where his records are kept and 
his account made up ? 

(4) To what extent are nonessentials now cumbering the man's 
record book, and what are bare essentials which must be retained ? 

War System of Payment. 

56. If the war system of payment (Field Service Regulations, Pt. 
II, Ch. XV) can be carried into effect in peace units will gain great 
relief. The pay accounts of militiamen would then be prepared in 
the pay office at district headquarters, and units would only be 
responsible for entering issues of pay on acquittance rolls and in the 
men's pay books, and also for keeping the pay office informed, by 
means of regimental ordsrs, of any changes affecting each man's 
status or rate of ])ay. To complete the system, the contents of the 
"Soldier's Pay Book for Use on Active Service" (Army Book 64) 
should be embodied in the militiaman's record book. This book 
would then be equivalent to a last pay certificate, and the militiaman 
would have to produce it before drawing his pay. No better means 
can be imagined of enhancing its value to its owner. 

Records and Record Books. 

57. I am doubtful whether, on inquiry, it will be found worth while 
setting u]) in peace formal record offices apart from units. The nec- 
essary information regarding the soldier's service is at present, and 
should probably continue to be, recorded at the unit's headquarters. 
But of this I am certain, that the existing system of recording in 
duplicate, in the militiaman's record book and in a regimental record 
book, every detail affecting not only his service, but also his arms, 
equipment, etc., leads to a huge amount of useless clerical work. 
Mucli information that ought to be recorded in a unit is not required 
by the individual soldier, and vice versa. The record book should 
therefore be thoroughly overhauled and the information required by 
the man disentangled from the information required by the unit. 
Many of the points now entered in the supposed interests of the 
unit might more appropriately be dealt with by means of equipment 
ledgers, etc. 



80 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Cadet Records. 

58. The record work of the senior cadets, which is novr carried 
out in the training area, should in future be effected at the head- 
quarters of the battalion area. In fact, under my proposals, this 
work, plus the registration of cadets and the care of and accounting 
for their equipment and stores, will form the chief responsibihty 
of the ar^a officer, who should, in future, have little to do with 
instructional duties.^ In all that afTects the territorial work of 
cadets, the area officer will have to assist liim the noncommissioned 
officers in charge of training areas. They will be his executive 
agents throughout the area, and it will be their business to forward 
to him at area headquarters all necessary information. 

Returns. 

59. Units and area officers should forward returns and statistics 
affecting the numbers, service, and pay of militiamen, together 
with the numbers and service of cadets, directly to the Adjutant 
General's Office at district headquarters. There is no necessity at 
all for the brigade office being worried with work of this nature. 
The more direct the channel of communication between the units 
and areas and district headquarters, the better for everyone. I 
can not help tliinking that some of the returns now called for are 
either too voluminous or might be rendered less frequently. For 
instance, the monthly return from area officers (C. M. Form M. 19) 
might well be rendered quarterly or even half yearly. 

Administrative Correspondexce. 

CO. Similarly, unit commanders and area officers should deal 
directly with the Quartermaster General's Department on all mat- 
ters which concern that department. Equipment and store indents, 
store accounts, returns of ammunition expended, and all documents 
of a similar nature should, in peace, as in war, go straight from the 
unit to the departmental officer, and vice versa, without passing 
through any intervening office. 

Channels of Correspondence. 

61. The only correspondence then between units and district 
headcjuarters which need pass through the brigade office is that 
connected with the work of the Chief of the General Staff and of 
the Adjutant General, less record office work and territorial regis- 
tration. A brigadier must be kept in touch with the training of 
his brigade, with disciplinary questions and with the promotion 
and appointment of officers from captain's rank upward. But 
this is about all that he need be troubled with, and, if brigade office 
correspondence is kept within these limits, one clerk should suffice 
to deal with it a,nd have plenty of spare time wherewith to assist 
the brigade major in the instructional work of the brigade. 

I Although area officers will have larger areas to administer, I do not consider that their duties will, in 
consequence, be heavier than at present, and there should be no necessity for increasing the pay now given. 



il 



THE AUSTBALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 81 

VI. DECENTRALIZATION. 

War Considerations Paramount. 

62. Unlike a regular army, the Australian Militia has no oversea 
duties or police functions to perforin in peace. The force exists 
for war; by the war test only should it be judged, and the introduction 
of any sort of peace machinery into its organization is peculiarly 
unsuitable. In other words, there should be no such thing as an 
Australian peace system —the system should, from A to Z, have a 
direct bearing on the exigencies of war. 

A Peace System. 

63. Such is the theory. Actually, the Australian system as it 
exists to-day is so purely a product of per.ce procedure that it could 
not hope to carry on beyond the first few weeks of war. The central- 
ization in the Defense Department at Melbourne exceeds anything 
I have experienced during more than 40 years' service in India, 
in tlie United Kingdom, and in every ])art of the world where troops 
administered by the British War Oflice are stationed. That this 
centralization is due wholly to the existing system of financial con- 
trol I am not prepared to assert, but, unquestionably, it is on finan- 
cial grounds that the present mass of petty questions, which in a 
well-ordered business would be dealt with locally, are now referred 
from districts to headquarters. Hence an inevitable tendency to 
centralize in other branches of work. Hence, also, an increasing 
unwillingness on the part of officers to act on their own responsibility. 
Hence, again, a real danger that, in course of time, the spirit of 
initiative throughout the army may suffer. Hence, finally, the most 
fruitful cans; of disaster in time of war namely, the collapse of 
the officer t .ained for many years to be frightened to death of a 
sixpence when he is suddenly called upon to decide a matter in 
which thousands of pounds may be involved. 

Results op Existing System. 

64. Throughout Australia, district commandants, staff officers, 
and unit commanders, much as they differ on other points, are 
unanimous in deploring the steady increase in correspondence, 
and the equally steady decrease in any result from that correspond- 
ence. As a result, the Defense Department is already faced with 
persistent demands from units for trained clerical assistance; de- 
mands which, in present circumstances, can with difficulty be resisted. 
But not only will the expense of giving such assistance be considerable, 
but it will be given at tlie cost of war efficiency, tending as it must to 
str(nigthen the purely peace element in the existing system. 

Nothing is more certain in an army than that every two or three 
extra clerks in a district end by creating one more clerk at head- 
quarters. The men are honest according to their lights and work 
to justify their existence. But the more letters they write, the greater 
the number of answers. Therefore, the root of the evil must be 
struck at and the necessity for reference to Melbourne must be 
restricted. 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 6 



82 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAE, DEFENSE. 

Position at Headquarters. 

65. The chiefs of the military and administrative departments 
in the Defense Office at Melbourne are equally the victims of a 
highly centralized financial system. They are without power, and 
have not even any subordinates of their own to advdse them, where 
financial questions are concerned. So it comes that the policy of 
the army, in gross and in detail, is dominated by a finance depart- 
ment, whose military knowledge must be sketchy and whose re- 
sponsibility can only be described as shadowy. 

The urgent necessity at the present juncture is that the military 
policy of the Commonvvealth- should be brought into line with finan- 
cial facts. Only responsible men, possessing real military and 
administrative knowledge, can do this; only by the agency of 
such men as these can real economy be effected. 

The United KiN<iDOM in 1904. 

66. The condition of affairs in the United Kingdom, described 
by the Esher committee in 1904, is reproduced to-day in an exag- 
gerated form in Australia. In the words of the committee's report— 

^Vhile the prp.seiit sy.stem (.i" financial control is futile in peace, it is ruinous in 
war. Officers unaccustomed to bear any financial res]»onsibility, and ruled by 
excessively C( mplex regulations, can not at once impnivise a system for the c-ontrol 
of expenditure in the field, when thf^ restraints are suddenly removed, The result 
as in South Africa, is the waste of millicnis. * * * By insuring a rigid adherence 
to elaborate regulations, the finance department doubtless effects small savings; 
but it does not and can not secure real economy. * * * The the(»ry that military 
officers of all ranks are, by the fact of wearing uniform, shorn of all business instincts 
has inevitably tended to produce the laxity which it is su])i>csed to prevent. * * * 
There can be no doubt that in proportion as officers are accustomed to financial 
responsibilities, the economy wliich they alone can secure will be effected. 

Decentralization Essential. 

67. The Esher committee further reported as follows: 

It seems to have been expected that officers would be able to emancipate them- 
selves from the effects of their peace training as soon as they took the field. Such 
expectations could iKjt be realized. * * * We are alisolutely convinced that if 
the army is to be trained to exercise the initiati^'e and the independence of judg- 
ment which are essential in the field, its peace administration must be effectively 
decentralized. The object should be to encourage the assum])tii.n of responsibility 
as far as possible. 

This decentralization, they realized, would have to be carried out, 
not in the districts alone, but also in the War Office itself, and they 
accordhigly recommended, and secured, the delegation of certain 
financial powers to the administrative chiefs at Army headquarters, 
as well as to officers placed in charge of administration- in the districts 
outside. 

Command and Administration. 

68. Insistence on the distinction between the business administra- 
tion of an army and troop leading lay at the root of the Esher commit- 
tee's proposals for decentralization. "The training and preparation of 
His iMajesty's forces for war should," they held, "be the first, and, as 
far as possible, the undivided duties of general officers commanding 
in chief." Experience has since thoroughly borne out this dictum. 
As a rule, the born leader of men, assuming he has time for adminis- 



THE AUSTKALIAX SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 83 

trative detail, has little r.ptitude for it. Even in a professional army, 
where men devote their whole lives to military work, specialization 
in all matters pertaining to the art of war, and to troop training, has, 
under modern conditions, proved to be necessary. How much more 
then must it be necessary under a militia system? 

Specialization Necessary. 

C9. Equally vital to a militia army is the specialization of the mili 
tary administrator. Whether he be a distinguished leader or deeply 
versed in the science of strategy are minor considerations. Good 
business aptitude and business training are the real qualifications, 
when they can be found , coupled with just so much military knowledge 
as to enable their possessor to meet military demands with intelligence 
and sympathy. The supply of such men iri a militia army will never 
equal the war demand, unless the principle of specialization is jipplied 
in peace so that a certain number of tliem are gi-adually evolved by 
normal processes. 

Need for the Business Man 

70. On purely military grountls, the maintenance of a clear line of 
demarcation between the fighting soldier on the one hand, and the 
military administrator on the other, and the specialization of either 
for his particular work, can be defended and advocated. Put respon- 
sibility for accurate accounts and for war efficiency on the same indi- 
vidual, he is bound to neglect his men and play up to the £ s. d. If 
he fails in training he may never be found out; if he goes wrong over 
his accounts he is certain to go to the wall. 

As a business proposition, too, the need is obvious for specialized 
training for the man who has himself to carry out important commer- 
cial transactions in peace and war, and has to gauge and report on the 
capabilities of his business subordinates. 

There is further an important political aspect to tliis question. 
Neither Parliament nor the treasury nor, in fact, the common sense 
of the nation, would tolerate any real and wide measure of decen- 
tralization in financial matters being effected, unless they were con- 
vinced that the men to whom it is proposed to delegate the necessary 
powers would have both time and business capacity to make the 
scheme a success. This condition alone is sufficient to preclude the 
delegation of any wide financial ])owers to commanders of troops who 
are not business experts, antl v^lio ought to devote the best part of 
their time to the preparation of vheir commands for war. 

For military reasons then, as well as on commercial and political 
grounds, the men who are to conduct the financial business transac- 
tions of an arm)^ should ])e trained to tlxe vrork from the stait, and it 
is as business men that they sh<vald liope to rise in their profession. 

A Military Business Department. 

71. Australian conditions being what they are, I have no hesitation 
in advising that the institution of a business department in the army, 
under a business head, is essential to efficiency and economy. The 
personnel of this department should be homogeneous and interchange- 



84 THE AUSTKALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

able as between the various sections into which the department should 
be divided. (See Appendix I.) In this way only wdl it be possible 
to produce, in time, men fitted to be placed in charge of administra- 
tion in all its branches, both in districts and at headquarters. 

If the Australian Army existed for peace only, there would be good 
grounds for giving the whole of the new department a purely civilian 
character. The peace work of the department could, during most of 
the year, be done by civilians as weU as by men with mihtary rank 
and title, but, during maneuvers and in war, the mihtary character 
of the administrator must be recognized in aU mattei-s where fuiancial 
responsibility is not concerned. He must wear uniform; he must be 
under military discipline; and he must himself have powers of discip- 
line over his own personnel, and over all military subordinates with 
whom he may be brought in contact. Further, his position will cer- 
tainly be strengthened, and his power for good enhanced, if he pos- 
sesses a recognized militaxy title. 

For supply and transport work, for ordnance duties, for the func- 
tions of the Pay Department, and for the clerical establishment in 
military offices military rank and status are, in my opinion, absolutely 
essential; and, on grounds of homogeneity, I recommend their gen- 
eral adoption througliout the whole department. 

Homogeneity Essential. 

72. The evils arising from a lack of homogeneity are well exempli- 
fied in the existing state of the Ordnance Department, two-thirds of 
whose members are under the Defense Department and one-third un- 
der the public service commissioner. I venture to suggest that not 
a soul, either in the Ordnance Department itself or outside of it, can 
be found to defend this system, or rather want of system. I have had 
the advantage of studying a report by i\Iaj. Austin, of the Imperial 
Army Ordnance Department, in which he recommends the formation 
of a military ordnance corps in Austraha. With many of his recom- 
mendations I am in agreement. Under my proposals, however, the 
ordnance personnel of the Australian Army will, in future, form an 
integral portion of the new business department, wearing its uniform 
and conforming to the rules governing it as a whole. The formation 
of the ordnance section in the new department is one of the many 
matters which should claim the early attention of the new business 
chief, Avho will, I am convinced, find Maj. Austin's report of much 
assistance. 

Chief of Ordnance's Department. 

73. The institution of the new business department and a strict 
observance of the duties assigned to the Chief of the General Staff and 
to the Adjutant General, will render the retention of the Chief of 
Ordnancef's De])artment unnecessary. A system which places the 
command and administration of the Corps of Artillery and Pmgineers 
apart from the rest of the Army is a bad system, and should be abol- 
ished forthwith. It is reminiscent of a state of affairs which, even in 
pre-C]-imean days, was hardly tolerable. The administration of the 
personnel of these corps should rest with the Adjutant General to 
the same extent that the administration of the other arms is vested in 
his department; and their training, as weU as coast defense policy, 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATION"AL DEFENSE, 85 

should be controlled by the Chief of the General Staff. The purely 
admmistrative functions of the Chief of Ordnance's Department 
should be transferred to the new business department. 

Duties, like the control of factories and the erection of works which, 
m London, are assigned to the Master General of Ordnance, are in 
Australia carried out elsewhere, or by other means. Any need there- 
fore for the Chief of Ordnance's Department is not apparent under 
the new conditions. 

Festance the Central Feature. 

74. Among the duties assigned to the new department would be 
the compilation of the Parliamentary estimate, the accounting for all 
sums expended by the Defense Department, cash payments, the ex- 
amination of accounts, and the provision of the financial personnel 
required to assist the other branches of the Defense Department. 
Accordingly the creation in it of a special finance section is essential. 
It should also be the central section of the new department. The 
bulk of the powers now vested in the finance member could at once be 
transferred to it, and all necessity for a finance member and for a sep- 
arate finance department would disappear. In this way large econo- 
mies should ensue both directly, owing to the absorption of a finance 
department that is separate from the main administrative work of the 
army, and indirectly, by the disappearance of interminable corre- 
spondence which will result when financial control and administrative 
responsibility are amalgamated under one head. The members of the 
existing finance department would find ample scope for their special 
knowledge both in the central section of the new department, as well 
as in the administrative branches which it is proposed to set up in 
districts. 

The auditor general should make the necessary arrangements for 
a proper audit of military accounts and stores, and any duplication 
of audit within the department itself would appear to be an unneces- 
sary expense. 

Formation of the New Department. 

75. The new department should therefore be formed, in the first 
instance, by absorbing into it the existing Army Ser^ace Corps as 
well as such members of the Ordnance Department, of the existing 
pay branch, of the corps of military staff clerks, and of the Quarter- 
master General's, Chief of Ordnance's, and finance member's depart- 
ments as may be required. The new departmental corps as a whole 
might be known as the Australian Army Service Corps. It should 
be recruited by young men from 18 to 20 years of age selected by 
competitive examinations. Officers of the combatant branches up 
to, say, 24 years of age might also be permitted to enter the depart- 
ment after passing a qualifying examination. A probationary period 
of at least a year should be a sine qua non for everyone who enters 
the department. Every officer should, at an early stage, serve for 
a period m the central section of the department. Promotion 
throughout the department should be by selection. The responsi- 
bility for reporting on the business capabilities of subordinates should 
rest with their departmental su])eriors. 



86 THE AUSTRALIAX SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Tenure ok Appointments. 

76. For men engaged in administrative work fixity of tenure is of 
greater importance than for those occupied in purely military duties. 
It is part of m}^ conception of a well-organized business department 
that its members should receive their appointments and should be 
removable only at the instigation of the head of the department, 
who should be allowed considerable latitude in determining how long 
his subordinates shoidd remain in any particular post. At the same 
time, steps should be taken to prevent the occupant of any adminis- 
trative post, particularly in districts, from melding too much power 
and influence owing to his tenure of office exceeding unduly the period 
of four years, to which the appointment of commandants and of 
the representatives of other departments is limited. Moreover, 
care shoidd be taken to keep administrative officials at Ai-my head- 
quarters in thorough touch with the life of the Army, and there 
should be a constant and well-calculated interchange of all ranks 
between the Defense Office at Melbourne and the administrative 
branches in the districts. The tenure of appointments in the admin- 
istrative^ department might reasonably be fixed at six years. 

The Head of the Department. 

77. In the course of time, when the new department has been in 
existence for some years, I have little doubt but that it will be capable 
of producing men htted in every respect to control its destines. When 
that day arrives, one man, and one man alone, who, on the British 
analogy, I wouhl term the Quartermaster General, should be placed 
in charge of the business administration of the Army. I realize, 
however, that in ])resent circumstances it will be most difficult to 
find any one man ])ossessing such business qualifications and, at the 
same time, such knowledge of military conditions as would fit him 
to undertake tiie considerable burden of responsibilit}^ that control 
of the new department will entail. Moreover, it is above all things 
necessary that the head of the new department shoidd possess the 
entire confidence of the financial authorities of the Commonwealth. 
After the honorable Minister for Defense he, more than an3^one else, 
w-ill be looked to to secure the economical working of the whole mili- 
tary machine, as well as conformity to the rules which Parliament 
and the treasury a])ply to all expencfiture. 

If such a man is appointed, it is to be hoped that he will be given 
ample powers for the purpose, and that he and those working under 
him will roc(>ive sympathetic treatment, both from the nation and 
the Army, during what necessarily wall prove to be the trjang and 
difficult period of initiation. He might be styled the Comptroller 
General of Military Administration, and the Quartermaster General 
would act under him as his second in command. The Comptroller 
General should be a member of the Military Board. 

A Civilian Required Temporarily. 

78. Such a man can not, I am convinced, be found within the ranks 
of the Army itself and for the present, therefore, a civilian of knowl- 
edge and experience and well versed in the public affairs of the Com- 
monwealth should be specially appointed to supervise the inaugura- 
tion of the new department. One advantage of a temporary arrange- 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 87 

ineiit of this nature would be that either the Comptroller General 
himself or the Quartermaster General would be in a position to devote 
much time to superintending the building up of the new business 
branches in the districts. In this matter personal supervision and 
encouragement would be worth reams of complex instructions or 
regulations. I trust that it will be understood from the iirst that 
the appointment of the Comptroller General would l)e a temporary- 
measure lasting for a few years only, and that it would be dispensed 
with as soon as the new department could be trusted to run alone. 

The Departmental (.'hiefs. 

79. The danger of the Comptroller General's Department setting 
up a new linancial autocracy must be guarded against. 

. It is a cardinal feature of the system of decentralization I advocate 
that the financial responsibility of all departmental heads at head- 
quarters, and of their representatives in the districts, should be more 
fully emphasized than is now the case. Such responsibility is best 
deiiiied b}' the vote or votes each department or section of a depart- 
ment is called on to prepare or administer. (Appendix J.) Thus, 
the preparation of votes for all personnel should be specifically 
assigned to the Adjutant General's Department, and not an officer 
or inan ought to be added to, or deducted from, the estabhshment of 
the Army, either on the military or on the administrative side, nor 
should changes in the pay and emoluments of officers or men be 
carried out, except through the Adjutant General's estimate schedule. 
Similarly, votes for education and training, on both the military and 
administrative sides, should be prepared in the department of the 
Chief of the General Staff, and the allocation of training grants to 
districts should be made on his advice.^ Even in the Quartermaster 
General's Department itself, care must be taken that iinancial con- 
trol is not unduly centralized in the central section, and the responsi- 
bility of the other sections of the department for the preparation 
and administration of their vote, or parts of votes, should be ade- 
quately safeguarded. 

Ministerial Respo-vsibility. 

80. Nothing said in the previous paragraph is meant to imply that 
ministerial respt)nsibility for, and control over, military expenditure 
should be in the least degree weakened. This responsibility and 
control should continue to be exercised, as heretofore, through the 
permanent head of the Defense Department. 

All that is wanted is that wider discretion than now should be given 
to the Chief of the General Staff, to the Adjutant General, and to 
the Comptroller General of Milittiry Administration (or the Quarter- 
master General), over the expenditure of the sums voted by Parlia- 
ment for their respective departments. They, in their turn, should 
be encouraged gradually to delegate iinancial powers to their sub- 
ordinates in the districts. It is in this way, and in this way only,- 
that anv measure of real decentralization can be ultimately attained. 



1 1 strongly advocate money for education and training, outside the statutory oamp training, being 
intrustid to tbe Chief of the General Sta i in the form of a block training grant whi'>h he might allocate 
as he thinks fit. I'his plan has proved most suceossful at home, and 25 per cent better value is obtained 
from the block grant than from the same sum of moa.n- meticulously apportioned under diiTereut headings. 
Officers and men are ready to malte considerable pacuniiry sacrifices if they know that the training grant 
gains by their self-abnegation. 



88 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Relation of New Department to Others. 

81. To enable the Chief of the General Staff and the Adjutant 
General to shoulder the responsibility thus placed with them, expert 
financial assistance should, on" their requisition, be forthcoming for 
their departments. The necessary arrangements for providing this 
expert personnel should be made by the Comptroller General. By 
this means the financial soundness of proposals formulated by and 
of estimates prepared in these departments should be sufficiently 
guaranteed. 

In future, therefore, the responsibility of the new finance section, 
vis-a-vis, the other departments of the Army, should be limited to 
accounting, providing such financial assistance as the other depart- 
ments may require, and embodying their estimates in the Parlia- 
mentary estimate. It will not be any part of its business to criticize 
or query the policy of the other departments. Such criticism can be 
undertaken by the Comptroller Cieneral (or by the Quartermaster 
General) onh^ in his capacity as a member of the Military Board. On 
the other hand, the other branches of the Defense Department must 
learn to rely on the Quartermaster General's Department for their 
accounting, arrangements being made for keeping them informed 
periodical!}' as to how their account stands. A General Staff officer 
attempting to keep an account of a training or education grant is like 
a swan on the shore, i. e., out of his proper setting. 

The ]*ekmam-:\"T Head's Okkice. 

82. To enable the Minister of Defense to exercise efficient control 
over the work of the mihtaiy de] aitments, a couf le of financial 
experts should be added to the existing estabhshment of the perma- 
nent head's office. Like the rest of the peisonnel of this office, they 
should be civilians aj^pointed by the ] ublic seivice commission. By 
this means the j-eimanent head should be enabled to supj :ly accurate 
information, not only affecting the general i olicy of the Army, but 
also concerning the financial bearing of pro] osals submitted by the 
depaitmental heads for the minister's consideiation. 

.\.oreover, financial work connected with the juiely civilian estab- 
lishments of the Aimy will be transacted in the permanent head's 
office. 

The Po.^iition at Headquarters in Future. 

83. Thus far I have dealt mainly with the oiganization of work at 
Army headquaiteis. Under my pio] osals the delegation of financial 
power to the tiifferent heads of dep aitments should, without weaken- 
ing ministerial res] onsibihty or control, become more of a reahty than 
it is at present. If each member completely accepts the resj onsi- 
bility thus assigned to him, centi ahzation of power in any one depart- 
ment should, in future, be im| ossible. 

^!ost uh] oitant of all, the system I advocate will be a war system. 
Machmery will be Cioated in peace which should enable the Chief 
of the General Staff, the Adjutant General, and the Quai termaster 
General, or their representatives with an aimy in the field, to carry 
out the duties assigned to them in war under the terms of the Field 
Service Regulations. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 89 

The Business Branch in a District. 

84. I come now to the state of affairs in districts as it should be 
under the proposed system. Under the commandant of the district, 
the three mihtary departments at Army headquarters will be duly 
represented, and the functions of these representatives will be de- 
fined broadly in accordance with the duties assigned to the various 
members of the j ihtary Board, in so far as those duties are carried 
out locally. Thus under the commandant, war pohcy and war train- 
ing in the district will be the care of the General Staff officer, and 
both the Adjutant General's and Quartermaster General's Depart- 
ments should look to him and seek his advice where such matters are 
concerned. Similarly, the administration of j^ersonnel and the elabo- 
ration of local routine ]iolicy in peace would be vested in the Adjutant 
General's representative. Subject to the general direction and super- 
vision of the district commandant, the work of the Quartermaster 
General's Department should ])e cariied out in conformity with the 
broad lines of war and peace policy conceived by the other depart- 
ments. In matters of discii line, and for all purely mihtary purposes, 
there wiU be no distinction between the departments as regards their 
relations to the commandant. These relations will, in fact, remain 
much what they are at present. 

Responsibility of Its Head. 

85. It is in the very important matter of financial responsibility 
that a change will have to make itself felt in districts, particularly 
as affecting the position which the local head of the Quartei mas- 
ter General's Department will assume. Financially he will be re- 
sponsible directly to his departmental chief, and not to his com- 
mandant. He personally will be responsible that moneys allocated 
for expenditure in the district are not exceeded, and that they are 
expended and accounted for in accordance with treasury regulations. 
He, too, will be personally responsible for the accuracy of the district 
estimates. The local estimates should, it is tiue, be signed by the 
commandant as well as by the Quartermaster's General's representa- 
tive, but the commandant's signature amounts merely to a notifi- 
cation that the policy the estimates stand for meets with his appioval. 
The Quaitermaster General's representative alone will certify the 
accuracy of the estimate. 

Overruling the Administrative ( »fficer. 

86. In war, and' in emergency in peace, it is essential that the com- 
mander of troops should possess the power of overruling the adminis- 
trative officer, even where his financial responsibility is concerned, but 
it may be taken for granted that this power will very rarely be exer- 
cised. By overruling the aciministrative officer the commander 
would, ipso facto, take fullest financial responsibility on his own 
shoulders, and he would have to be prepared to face all the conse- 
quences of his action. As a protection to the administrative officer, 
whose financial responsibihty is thus interfered with, it was the rule 
in our Army at a time when a civilian commissariat bianch existed, 
and it is the rule in the Navy to-day, that he has the right of represen- 



90 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

tation and explanation directly to his own administrative chief. 
Both the power of overruhng and the right of representation should be 
embodied in the stancUng orders of the Australian military forces 
when the new system is instituted. 

General Positions in Districts. 

87. It goes without saying that the smooth working of this system, 
as of ever}^ other system, will depend on the good will of all concerned. 
Commandants and military officers will have to reahze that the finan- 
cial resources at the (hsposal of the administrative officers are not 
unlimited, and that policy in all (iirections must be brought into 
accord with financial and business exigencies. It ma}^ be ho}:)ed that 
they will in time come to regard the head of the local business branch 
as a friend who is ever ready to help them as far as his ] owers permit, 
and as a man who will endeavor to make money allocated for purely 
military purposes — for instance, the educational and training votes — 
go as far as good administration will allow. 

Equally, the members of the administrative depaitments must 
remember that they are an integral portion of the Army; that its 
efficiency and well-being are as much their concern as the concern of 
the other depaitments, and their constant endeavor must be, subject 
to economical considerations, to make their work conform to the 
general liae of s ohcy laid down by the commandant. But they must 
ever bear in mind that it is by their actions as business men that their 
own ie})Utations and the name of their cor]>s wiU stand oi- fall. 
Nothing can excuse business incapacity. 

Decentralization Impossible \Vith()i;t a Chance. 

88. Finally, I would say that in the foregoing paragraphs of this 
chapter are embo(iied my response to the dist ict commandants who 
have, during my inspections, with one accord, begged me to endeavor 
to devise a method of leheving them from the harassing burden of 
administrative responsibility now resting on their shoulders. Each of 
them in turn has i ointed out to me that the mass of detail he has to 
attend to, in coordinating the work of the big achninistrative sections, 
makes undue inroads on his tmie, and that his touch with the troops 
as well as with the training and militar}^ instruction of young officers 
suffers sadly in conse luence. I have done my best, and I myself 
at least am firmly of the opinion that only on the lines I have indicated 
can any hope of real relief be reasonably expected. 

Actual decentrali ;ation it is not in my rower to guarantee. That 
must rest with the departmental chiefs at heatkiua'iters, and it will of 
necessity be a gradual nrocess. All I can attempt to do is to devise a 
system which will render possible a real measure of decentralization 
without at the same time overwhelming commanders of troops with a 
mass of detail. I earnestly hope that the necessary machinery will be 
instituted at an eaj ly date and that subsequently the membei s of the 
Military Board, individually and collectively, will see to it that district 
offices shall become something more than mere post offices for corre- 
spondence from units and areas to the department at Melbourne. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 91 

VII. THE ARMY TO-DAY. 

Characteristics of the Militia. 

89. The best assets of the Australian land forces at their present 
stage of development are to be found in the natural soldierlike spirit, 
in the intelligence, and in the wiry, athletic frames of the bulk of the 
rank and file. Their limitations are those inherent in every militia — 
aye, even the far-famed militia of Switzerland. 

Patriotism, keenness, study, and careful instruction strain and 
struggle upon the heels of practical experience and habits of discipline, 
but rarely quite catch them up. For these in a regular army are the 
product of years of continuous service, and until a militia has been 
called out for service and has been some time in the field it will always 
for this reason lack self-confidence when faced by professional soldiers. 

It is well to emphasize these immutable principles at the start, for 
they bring all my remarks into proper perspective and should act as 
a steadier to those who affect to despise their potential enemies, an 
attitude only one degree less bad than the present-day English habit 
of despising or affectmg to despise their own defenders. 

Admitting that the Australian Army of to-day is necessarily short 
of })ractical experience and is never embodied long enough for dis- 
cipline to become a second nature, what are the substitutes ? Theory 
must do what it can to take the place of practice in the field, and 
where discipline can not be absorbed as a habit, it can at least be cor- 
dially acquiesced in as a right and reasonable rule of military coiiduct. 

Training. 

90. In the ])receding paragraph I have put into the shape of advice 
what is actualh'^ taking place in the majority perhaps — certainly in a 
large number^ — of Australian Militia units. In such corps aU ranks 
have done their veiy best by close study of the books of regulation to 
prepare themselves to take full advantage of their brief period of 
practice training in camp. Often the outpost sentry is word jjerfect 
in reeling ofl" the duties lie has to perform; the section leader in a 
defensive position sees t(-- it that his men are well under cover and 
have a good field of fire; tiie subalterns have clear and generally sound 
theories as to the functions of scouts, supports, and reserves; their 
seniors have educated themselves into an examination proof grip of 
the tactical principles governing the use of advanced and rear guards, 
flank attack, covering fire, etc. All this is admirable, and it is only 
when theory has to be translated on to the ground that the lack of the 
ounce of practice begins to betray the lightness of the ton of theory. 

91. The sentry is so eager to see the enemy that he neglects to con- 
ceal himself, thus giving away the outpost positions; the commander 
of (he picket puts four times more sentry groups out than are necessary 
to do the work; the section leader forgets to get in touch with troops 
on his flanks and is ignorant of their whereabouts; the advanced 
guard commander passes down a valley without crowning the heights; 
the commander of a support makes his men lie down in the open 50 
yards behind the fighting fine and encourages the comrades to whom 
ne has brought assistance by shooting them through the head. 

92. The foregoing transcript, taken from mj diary, of some failings 
to make theorj" correspond with practice is not as serious as it might 
appear. 



92 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

First, the bii-Uet is the finest and cleverest instructor in the world 
aijd would straighten out many of these little errors in a flash. 
Analyzed it will be found that they are failures in the power of realizing 
the unreal — failures, that is to sav, of the imagination. The best cure 
for these is a leaden pill in a nickel envelope. 

Secondly, Territorials and militiamen all over the world do precisely 
the same sort of things, and he who believes that Regulars themselves 
are altogether exempt takes them at their own valuation. 

But the bullet charges high fees for its lesson, and two black stran- 
gers can not make one white Australian. 

93. A great deal can be done to strengthen the practical side of 
training in Australia by leveling up the higher criticism l>rought to bear 
upon camp training. A noncommissioned oificer is rarely capable of 
giving higher tactical instruction. He should confine himself mainly 
to teaching cadets and recruits. For the kind of work I am consid- 
ering an oificer —a highly educated one at that a man whose views 
have been widened by travel and by maneuver working with the tliree 
arms combined would be able to do a very great deal of good. The 
Duntroon graduate should, in due course, produce the very type, 
especially if he is encouraged to see something of the great outside 
military world. Such a man once appointed should be left free to 
devote himself mainly to the higher instruction of the militia oflicers 
and noncommissioned ollicers, who must themselves be the instruc- 
tors of their men. The strong point of the Army is in its men men 
at the came time intelligent and bidable. The weak point of the 
Army lies in the comparatively small number of its oSFicers who are 
capable of giving good instruction. This will como in time - it is 
coming all the time but there is the weakest spot of to-day. 

94. Once the mass of the oificers gain suilicient experience and self- 
conlidence to enable them to speak as true commanders and guides to 
their m^n the secret of creating some spirit of true discipline in a 
modern democratic army will have l)een solved. From the General 
Staff at headquarters through district commandants and brigade 
majors, through battalion commanders and permanent adjutants, 
thiv)ugh company officers down to the men in the ranks the current of 
progressive tliought will flow in a sustained and systematic stream.* 

95. Turning to the syllabus along which the Army is being trained 
this year,^ I think it is in all respects well adapted to its objects. As 
to the execution thereof, I have one comment of universal application 
to make. It is necessary that much of the training should be ele- 
mentary, especially this year and next year. But ollicers engaged in 
instructing their men must bear in mind that elementary work means 
work simplified, not work twisted out of its true shape into some- 
thing unpractical. Strip the problem down to its skeleton; leave, if 
it must be, only the backbone, but let that backbone at least retain 
its own vital marrow. Suppose the recruit is being given an object 
lesson in outpost work and is shown a picket, its support, its group of 
sentries, a patrol, a detached post, and an examining party. This 
would be too much for him to take in all at once, so the idea has to be 
simplified. Take away everything except the picket and one sentry, 
point out where the main body is supposed to be reposing, and the 

1 vide my proposals In Sec. V. « Memorandum of training, 1913-14. 



THE AUSTKALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 93 

dullest I'ccniit will probably grasp the general principle underlving 
the service of security. 

96. But in carrying oitt this simplification be careful to let that 
specimen picket be placed where a picket might be placed on service, 
and let the sentry be posted where a reasonable picket commander 
might feel the need of a sentry. If, on the plea of the lesson being 
" only elementary," the picket would be visible to the enemy whilst t he 
sentry is placed down in a hole from whence he can not see 100 yards, 
why, then, instead of being elementary the instruction has merely 
been detrimental. 1 he recruit will remember having seen that sentry 
wasted upon a hollow long after he has forgotten all the wise explana- 
tions of his tutor. I have been driven to m^ake these observations 
owing to the frequency with which it has seemed to me to be assumed 
that it did not matter how unreal an object lesson might be provided 
it was to be served up to beginners. 

Discipline. 

97. I freely confess that my recollections of South Africa, coupled 
with the assurances of numerous Australian friends, had caused me to 
feel skeptical regarding the quality of the discipline I should find 
regulating the ranks of the Army. But if I came here prepared to ban, 
I can only say now I was mistaken. 

98. The Australian soldier is very amenable to discipline. That a 
contrary impression should be so prevalent is due to the following facts : 

(1) Ihere are not yet competent commanders enough to go round. 

(2) Manifestations of any feehng, but more especially of feelings of 
respect, are discountenanced under the unwritten Australian code of 
conduct. 

(3) The private soldier does not clearly understand that what an 
officer is is one thing and that what he stands for is another, and, mih- 
tarily speaking, the significant thing. 

99. So long as the commander knows his job and realizes accurately 
his relation to the lads intrusted to him by their parent — the Ptate — for 
instruction there is no cause for misgivings as to Australian discipline. 
I believe, indeed, that with a little trouble the men could be brought 
a step further and made to understand that even when they have 
good, practical reasons for believing that they are as clever and as 
competent as their oil cer, still they are bound by patriotism and by 
regard for the honor of the regiment to salute him and obey him with 
as much r'^spect as if he was Marlborough and Wellington combined. 

100. Materialistic misconception of the significance of a military 
salute is prevalent only because the ethics of military psychology 
have not hitherto attracted the attention of the Austrahan intellect. 
An officer giving a command is not expressing his own wishes— he is 
for the nonce acting as the mouthpiece of the State— conveying to 
other servants of the State temporarily intrusted to his charge, the 
supreme will of the people. 

101. Conversely, a private soldier does not salute his officer 
because he likes him, or because he, the private soldier, is in any way 
an inferior being, but because he sees passing before him the personi- 
fication of the sovereign State, which, in this case, has decreed that it" 
is to be recognized by a formal salutation. The personaUty of the 
officer has no more to do with the matter than the personality of a 
corpse has effect on the crowd who respectfully doff tneir hats as the 
procession winds past them. 



94 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

102. I trust then that officers and men will by degrees learn to be 
more punctilious on this point of the salute, which, small though it 
may seem, yet is liable to give rise to false impressions, not only 
amongSL outsiders, but also in the heart of the Army. As to the 
essential, namely, the readiness of the Australian soldier to obey, and 
follow a leader who knows his business— on that score the military 
authorities may be quite reassured. 

Musketry. 

103. Every one is agreed upon the importance to an army of a high 
standp.rd of musketry. Men may be aide to ride well, to march long 
distances, to maneuver rapidl}^; all these accomplishments may only 
serve as a means of escaping from the enemy unless they are able to 
do credit to the wonderful modern magazine rifle they carry. 

Consciousness of being a marksman is a great moral support in 
battle. The soldier who doubts whether he can hit the alvancing 
foeman is twice as likely to run away as the soldier who knows he can 
break a ] ottle at a hundred yards three shots out of four. 

In a militia force, progressive training and economy of time are 
essential, and both these desiderata will t)e best served by giving the 
young idea a thoroughly sound grounding in musketry. From the 
moment a senior cadet first handles a rifle, the serious business of his 
musketry training should be steadily kept in view. 

104. At present the musketry instruction of the senior cadets can 
hardly be said to hit the bull's-eye plumb center. They are being 
taught to shoot with a weapon quite different from that which is in 
the hands of the militia. Trigger pressing, aiming, adjustment of 
sights, and the action of the rifle, all have to be relearned on transfer. 
The want of trained instructors shows up the more clearly at musketry 
than in any other branch of training. The commandant of the School 
of muskeiry reports that, in many instances, senior cadet musketry is 
worse than useless owing to the mistaken notion that it is more 
important to show a good percentage of cadets as having fired range 
practices than a smaller number effectively trained. Thus do faulty 
trigger pressing and gun shyness tend to become chronic. More 
mmiature ranges and more instructional stores are badly wanted for 
cadets, but here, as I have said earlier in my report, impatience must 
wait upon money. 

105. I am sorry to have to report that, judging by the results of 
the annual course of musketry for last year, the standard of nnisketry 
can only be classed as third rate.' Especially is this the case in the 
Infantry, where too large a percentage are shown as ''not exercised." 
Also, many officers in charge of machine-gun sections are not qualified 
to han?le'^ these weapons, although, in the hands of untrainefl men, 
machine guns are apt to be a two-e("ged weapon. 

Nature has done her best for the Australian in this matter of shoot- 
ing. She has fitted him out with a keen vision, long liml s, and just 
the right sort of shooter's nerve, tense, but controlled. "V\'henc(> then 
these disappointing results ? 

The chief causes appear to me to be — 

(a) Lack of sufficient range accommodation, particularly in metro- 
pohtan areas; (b) a tendency to rush men through their range prac- 

1 1 do not use this word in any technical sense, but merely to denote ra y personal opinion as to the actua 
standard compared with what it might be. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 95 

tices before they have completed then- prelimmary training; (c) the 
want of quahfied insi motors and instructional stores. 

106. Subject to what I have alrea iy said as to funds, there are 
cerlainly few, if any, shortcomings of the Australian military machine 
upon which money would be better spent than these })earing on 
musketry. I summarize the remedies as briefly as I can 

(a) Supervision over musketry throughout the Commonwealth to 
be strengdiened; (b) the School of Musketry to be made capaVde of 
instructing, in time, the whole of the instructional staffs as well as all 
machine-gun officers; (c) citizen officers and noncommissioned officers 
to be encouraged to qualify themselves to train their men; (d) senior 
cadet musketry to be systematized on progressive lines. 

107. Speaking as ex-comman lani of Hythe Musketry School, I 
feel confi lent I am not sugg.^sting extravagance when I submit that 
the staff of the excellent Scliool of Musketry at Randwick neeiJs some 
strengthening. The commanlant should be enabled to devote a 
part of his attention to supervising the musketry of the Army as a 
whole, anrl an officer should be appointed as chief instructor, who 
could take his place at the school whenever he might be absent on 
inspection work. For five years I had to inspect the whole of the 
musketry in India, and I am perfectly certain that any officer who 
conscientiously carries out work of this nature will have scant leisure 
to devote to the details of school work. Further, in each district 
there should be at leasi one officer who is capa^>le of holding the local 
courses of musketry instruction for militia officers and noncommis- 
sioned officers. 

«• 108. The importance of increasing full as well as miniature range 
accommodation is so obvious that I do not here press the point. 
Neither miniature ranges nor ammunition used on them would cost 
very much, whereas the instruction imparted is of gi-eat value. Men 
thoroughly trained on a miniature range have surprisingly little to 
learn on the open ranges. 

109. The system of cadet musketry should be revised. Until the 
last year of cadet service practice should be confined to shooting with 
the miniature rifle, and, as funds admit, it will be found of great 
advantage if, in all essentials, such as trigger pressing, sights, etc., 
these miniature rifles are similar to the service weapon. In Great 
Britain, in Canada, and in the United States of America cadets are 
normally instructed to shoot with the miniature of the service 
weapon they will use in later years. In the last year of senior cadet 
service, those who have passed the stanciards in grouping with the 
miniature rifle might be permitted to fire a recruits' course of mus- 
ketry with the service weapon. 

Light Horse. 

110. The Light Horse are the most typically Australian of any of 
the Commonwealth troops. Physically the men seem to have been 

. built by nature to fulfiU a Cavalry commander's ideal; all ranks are 
I exceedingly keen; they ride boldly and well, and are clever and quick 
\ at getting about the country. In fact, a large proportion of the 
j recruits join with half the trade of a mounted soldier at their fingers' 
I ends. 

j Although lamentation over the deterioration of the waler is a stand- 
ing dish at all reunions of officers belonging to mounted corps, the 



96 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

horses are actually of a sound and suitable stamp. Some of them 
are on the hght side, but, as a rule, they are not wanting in quality. 
With one exception, all brigadiers and commanding officers 1 spoke 
to on the subject seemed well satisfied with the new saddles. 

111. Cohesion, control, and horse mastership are the qualities 
which the Light Horse inevitably lack. I say hievitably, l)ecause, 
will' the short time available for training, it would l^e too much to 
expect of any men that they should develop high standanis of steadi- 
ness or re volu i ionize their preconceived noiions of the way to work 
a horse. But, admitting all this, tliere is still ample scope for im- 
provement even under existing conditions, and, what is more, I am 
convinced that it will gra lually come about. The reason for my 
conviction is that it was the lack of that very cohesion and of the art 
of sparing horses which was recognized ];y all of us as the weak spot 
of the Australian conlingen^s in South Africa. But the Light Horse 
have made good progress since those days, and the improvement is 
steadily going on all die time. 

112. With only moderate cohesion, a small bod}^, such as a squad- 
ron or even a regiment, may march and maneuver; without good 
cohesion, any larger body of Light Horse will soon find itself in dis- 
array and confusion. In the old da3^s the Australian contingents used 
up their horses as if each man had only to go out on the veldt and 
round up, or select from some friendly corps, another. To-day a 
Light Horse regiment would make its mounts last twice the time; in 
the near future I believe they will really come to understand the price- 
less value of a good and fit charger in peace or war. 

113. The remedies are in the hands of the officers, particularly the 
junior ofhcers. The men must look more to the troop leaders, whether 
in movement or in the firing line, and as the young officers improve 
in knowledge so they will gain power and grip over their men. This 
will give improved discipline, from which follows the closer cohesion that 
is requned. Individually the men move quickly; it is rapidity of col- 
lected maneuver of troops, squadrons, and regiments toward some 
common objective that must now be superimposed upon that good 
foundation. The same as regards stable management. Officers 
must make an earnest study of this subject and must see to it that 
whether in camp or in the lield their men are constantly thinking of 
their horses. 

114. To give point to the foregoing remarks I may as well give an 
example. The most instructive of my insj)ections of Light Horse took 
place early one morning when my official visit was supposed to be over 
and when I was believed to be, and had meant to be, miles away from 
the training ground. 

However, it was my fortune, so it happened, to motor past a Light 
Horse encampment on a fine summer's m.orning about half an hour after 
the force had started w^ork upon a tactical scheme. First, I met the 
loading squadrons working along in ver}^ good style toward th(^ enemy's 
position. Behind them were several squadrons making up lost dis- 
tance, moving toward the front somewhiit rapidly, Avithout much 
order, covering the whole width of the road, and in depth taking up 
at least four or live times the proper distance. Next came a squadron 
which had evidently started late, moving on either side of the road at a 
gallop. Last of all, as I passed the camp itself, single horsemen were 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF ISTATIONAL DEFENSE. 97 

still issuing from the gates of the paddock, most of them at full gallop , 
in a desperate hurry to join their comrades at the front. 

115. Here was lack of camp discipline and precision and want of care 
of horseflesh. Most of these men had not fallen in on parade and 
their squadron had moved on without them. This was irregular, and 
although no reflection on the lighting value of the individuals, yet a 
reflection, certainly, on the war value of the unit. Much depends upon 
a good start and perfect steadiness in getting away from camp. The 
impression made in the camp follows the horseman into the field. As 
to the horses, all owners in this horse-loving land will understand that 
only imperative necessity can justify a long day's work being com- 
menced at a furious pace. 

116. To improve troop and squadron control, field days, where a 
force as large as a whole brigade is in action, should be exceptional, 
and the work should be confined for the present mainly to squadron 
training. I have several times heard of the idea of combined camps 
for the three arms mooted by senior ofhcers, but whilst these would 
afford valuable experiences for commanders and staffs, from the point 
of view of the units I would prefer for some years to come, and until 
there are trainees of long service in the ranks, if an occasional training 
could be given to one unit at a time. The whole of the instructional 
staff of the brigade can then be employed with each regiment in turn. 

117. In reconnoissance more use should be made of patrols and the 
best men should be sent out. Protective patrols generally worked 
intelligently and well, though on several occasions, not being boldly 
enough pushed out, they could not have given the main body sufhcient 
warning of an attack to allow it to extricate itself in time from a low 
and ditHcult position. But as regards the individual savvy and quick- 
ness of all ranks I have nothing but praise. 

118. Ground scouting gains an added importance in the country 
over which I have seen the Light Horse working ; much time can be 
saved in movement if early intimation is given of the gates and pass- 
ways in the paddock fences. 

On one or two occasions I found the officers weak in map reading, 
and a compass would have been helpful. 

119. In message writing, Field Service Regulations lay down places 
for the address, number, date, place sent from, etc; this may seem a 
trivial matter, in reality it is important. While a reconnoissance is 
gomg on, the staff of a mounted brigade receives a large number of 
messages; if these are not written in proper form, valuable time is 
wasted in hunting out where the information comes from, and so on. 
Moreover, the writer is less likely to forget details when there is a 
place laid down for each one. A patrol that collects information and 
does not transmit it is useless. 

120. Recruited as they are, a large proportion of the men of the 
Light Horse are able to shoe their own horses. Both in camp and on 
mobilization men should have shoes in their shoe pockets ready fitted 
for their horses. 

121. The Light Horse have no barrack squares, but possess instead 
the whole of their native land, a magnificent training ground, to work 
over; the officers should make all ])Ossible use of it to teach object 
lessons ; in the stress of war men will remember what they have seen 
better than what they have been told. 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 7 



98 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

122. I have made certain criticisms on the Light Horse. I do not 
wish to leave the subject without again expressing my high apprecia- 
tion of their rahie to-day, and the confidence I feel as to their future. 
An invader would necessarily be very weak in the cavalry arm, and 
the Light Horse would have the time of their lives with his commu- 
nications and with his scouting and foraging parties. When battle 
was jomed they would also play their part, for I can assure the Com- 
monwealth that they possess to-day a formidable arm in their Light 
Horse — the sort of men any commamder would like to have at his 
back in war. 

Field Artillery. 

123. I the earlier dayg of the home Territorials the most common 
ftnd, on the platform, most effective form of attack upon the force 
took the sha])e of sarcasms levelled at the Field Artiller}'- units. How, 
it was asked by the indignant orator, could a highly technical arm, an 
arm that had always remained a mystery even to himself, be mastered 
by mere citizens ? Well, the thing has been done, at least to the extent 
that the Field Artillery are now cited by the supporters and not by the 
depreciators of the Territorials. 

124. So here in the Commonwealth, the facts being that, first, there 
is no mystery about artillery; secondly, that a special type of recruit — 
and a very excellent type — is always attracted by that arm of the 
service from which Napoleon arose to power. 

The Field Artillery furnish a first-class example of the wilUng, eager 
spirit that pervades the Commonwealth to-day. Although a longer 
period of training is required than in the Infantry, there is not the 
smallest difficidty in getting trainees to ai:)ply to join. The authori- 
ties have, indeed, to pick and choose their men from the numbers press- 
ing forward to undertake the more arduous duty. Having once 
elected for the Artillery, the trainees ])lay the game handsomely and 
give their time generously, with both hands, to the State. Through- 
out the year they continue to put in vohmtar}^ attendances at training 
drills, amoimting in many cases to quite a large number, and I am 
glad, indeed, to be able to report that all this keenness finds reflection 
in the work of the batteries in the field. 

125. Some of the instruction now being given is of the highest order, 
and the technical training of the firing battery is in safe hands. I 
have seen a considerable amount of successful practice at simple tar- 
gets and also, naturally, some which showed very clearly the need of 
longer training and greater experience. 

The following hints may be of some service to the officers: Time 
spent in reconnoissance is seldom wasted ; this ]3rinciple and a ready 
imagination will carry a battery commander far on the road to vic- 
tory. Want of imagination — want of power to borrow the enemy's 
point of view — is a downhill attribute. Example: On one occasion a 
battery trotted into action under cover, raising, as it went, a high 
column of dust, which must have given a hostile battery all the infor- 
mation it required; a little thought and the battery would have 
walked up and opened fire without any indication to the enemy of its 
position. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 99 

126., Here, per contra, is a favorable note from my diary: 

At camp the battery staff, even in highly trained batteries apt to move any- 
how, pressed forward smartly as a compact, cohesive body and kept well under cover 
till it was wanted. 

Some of the junior officers naturally show their lack of experience 
every now and then. Thus, an occasion rises to my mind when the 
battery leader, relying on the tracking powers of the second trumpeter, 
led the battery into the thickest part of a thick wood, instead of to 
the position selected by the battery commander. 

127. The horses are generally suitable, and one or two of the bat- 
teries I saw were very well mounted indeed. 

The driving in many cases was capital — it was even surprising. 
The Australian driver, though he may come from a town district, 
when he is brought under good instruction, develops a fine confi- 
dence and dash in a remarkably short time. Necessity is the mother 
of progress as well as of invention. Paddocks studded thick with 
stumps of big trees force the men to drive well or to take very bad 
spills. 

Most of the batteries I have seen at continuous training possess 
good standards of camp discipline and stable management, points that 
wiU tell strongly in their favor in war. 

128. I have spoken hitherto of the better-trained units that have 
been inspected. I have seen others attempting work beyond their 
present powers — batteries that should have been employed learning 
the very rudiments of their work. Two of these batteries are not 
yet ready for war. That is to say, they are not yet capable of mov- 
ing smartly off the road to take up a position and open fire therefrom. 

129. As the words "ready for war" used in the preceding para- 
graph may give rise to some misapprehension, I must clearly explain 
that I do not by that phrase mean to imply that even the efficient 
batteries of the Commonwealth Field Artillery are yet, collectively, 
trained up to tiie level required of the Artillery of an army working 
in masses together in the field. They have not had time yet, or 
opportunity, to practice that higher control and power of combina- 
tion outside tlie battery, without which there can be no real fire 
cooperation. 

130. Then again there is the problem of handfing that great mass 
of ammunition supply which lies behind the guns in action. Even 
within the batteries themselves this problem has hardly been attacked, 
I have only seen batteries working with their firing battery wagons; 
the first line wagons have not been in action. Whether higher 
training of this sort can ever satisfactorily be carried through in the 
present period of training is questionable. If not, then it must sim- 
ply be recognized that although the batteries may be "ready for 
war" as they stand, the Field Artillery as a whole will not be fit for 
handling in the mass during a pitched battle until they have been 
embodied and have worked together for a further period of at least 
several weeks. 

GARRISON ARTILLERY. 

131. I have inspected the bulk of the Garrison Artillery, both per- 
manent and militia, on their manning parades, and at work on the 
guns. 



100 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The Royal Australian Garrison Artillery are men of fine physique; 
they are very steady on parade and smart at their gun drill. A few 
of them struck me as being rather on the old side for work requiring 
vigor and force. In time of stress efficiency might suffer in conse- 
quence. I refer to this matter later on (par. 184) under the head of 
"Pensions." 

132. The soldiers of the militia Garrison Artillery are also a well 
set up, athletic lot of young fellows, very keen indeed, and quite up 
to the work reciuired of th.em. 

The only practice over a sea range that I saw was carried out by a 
militia unit. The drill was smart, and the rate of fire and effect would 
have been creditable to any troops. 

133. I noticed a small deficiency in eciuipment; the lack of canvas 
shoes for work with the modern gun mountings; witiiout them the 
danger of slipping is considerable. Tliey are now in use in the 
Imperial service. 

ENGINEERS. 

134. The Engineers of all ranks are conspicuous for the intelli- 
gent capacity with which they tackle their business. 

Tiierc is cause hero for gratification — none for surprise. The 
officers are architects or civil engineers; the rank and file are specially 
selected from the trades cognate to th.e work they have to perform 
as soldiers. 

Hence, even with the short period of military training available, 
the higher technical work of running searchligiits, with their engines 
and dynamos, is carried on with perfect ease by the citizen soldiers 
of Australia. They have nothing to learn here, so far as I can see, 
from any regular instructor. 

If only some arrangement couhl be mu'JiC for insuring that the 
searcldight sections of the militia could l)e available during the short 
but (hingerous precautionary period which nuiy precede mobilization, 
I see no reason for retaining electric light Engineers on a permanent 
basis. The Garrison Artillery might act as caretakers of the search- 
lights and their engines. 

135. When the submarines actually en route from England arrive, 
submarine mining, now in the h.ands of the Engineers, will, I presume, 
be either abolished, or handed over to the Xavy, as has been done 
elsewliere. I assume also that ''works" will continue to be carried 
out })y the department for home affairs. I nder a militia system 
there can not ])e room for two works departments in the same country. 

In these circumstances, then, there would appear to be little or no 
scope for the employment of a permanent Engineer Corps upon any 
of the duties referred to in the two previous paragraphs. 

136. Besides searchlight work, the Engineer militia has to deal 
with pioneer work of all kinds in the field, as well as with communi- 
cation service. Here specialized military knowledge is essential, 
and more technical instruction is wanted than is now available. 
Good value would be obtained if pioneer schools were established in 
central positions to which the officers and noncommissioned officers 
of Engineer units could be sent for instruction. Pioneer classes for 
other arms might also be usefully held from time to time at these 
schools. The advantage a permanent school possesses is that 
instruments, equipment, and models can be maintained there which 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 101 

the traveling instructor lacks. A couple of permanent instructors 
with half a do. en permanent assistants should suffice for the needs 
of each school. 

INFANTRY. 

137. I have now seen the greater portion of the Australian In- 
fantry — four brigades and several single battalions at maneuver 
camps, the remainder on ceremonial parades. 

I wish very much I could transplant 10,000 of these young soldiers 
to Salisbury Plain. They would do the croakers good and make them 
less frightened of other nations, who have no overseas children get- 
ting ready to lend them a band. 

138. Most of the officers are keen and resourceful. I was particu- 
larly struck by the clear and capable manner in which captains gave 
their story at my conferences, or when called upon to explain a situa- 
tion in tiie field. On the otlier liand, a proportion of the senior 
officers, even of the commanding officers, do not possess the nerve 
or calm essential to any one occupying positions so responsible. I 
have not concerned myself with personal detail, not conceiving it 
my duty to report on individuals, and from this attitude I shall not 
depart." But I state my broad impression so that the responsible 
Australian authority may know where there is scope for liis vigilance. 

139. Tlie majority of the noncommissioned officers and men are 
still very young, but they are fuP of intelligence and grit. On at 
least two occasions I have seen brigades tested severely, once by 
heat and heavy marching, the other time by floods and mud. In 
each case the men made light of their trying experiences, treating 
them as an excellent joke. 

140. In my general remarks at the commencement of this chapter 
I referred to the distinction between- an elementary lesson and an 
unreal lesson. With the Infantry, whose training is not varied and 
enlivened either by the horse, as in the Cavalry and Artillery, or by 
technical work, as in the Engineers, Army Service Corps, or Medical 
Services, it is specially important to bear in mind another distinc- 
tion, namely, that which exists between elementary work and dull 
work. 

1-41. I will give an instance. On one occasion all companies were 
ordered out to practice advanced guards. I supervised several of the 
exercises. The ca])tain explained the situation, apportioned the 
responsibility, and told off his -officers and men to their respective 
tasks. Then the company moved off. From that moment there 
was little more to be learned and therefore little more interest, pro- 
vided only distances were maintained. The company marched on 
and on, ])receded and flanked by scouts, first the vanguard, then the 
main guard — and nothing happened. Tiiere was no enemy; there 
was no contretemps. Why? Because it had been arranged that 
the work on that day was to be elementary. 

142. Well, but I maintain that even in the elementary stages better 
value might be got of one of those afternoons in camp which are so 
priceless because so few. Suppose that instead of all com])ames 
doing advancetl guards, one company formed outposts, and that an 
advanced guard company from a distance of 2 miles were miirched 
in such a direction that it must strike that outpost ? The scouts of the 
subaltern commanding the vanguard detect the outpost sentry, or 



102 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

do not detect him and cire fired on by the outpost. They report to 
the vanguard commander, who has to push forward and occupy as 
good a fire position as lie can and send back a written report to Ins 
captain commanding the main guard. The captain, in his turn, 
must determine what to do, and issue orders. Again, the outpost 
commancku' is warned by his sentry, and brings his picket into 
fighting position, at the same time writing a report to the commander 
of the main force. 

143. It may be said that the young officers have never practiced 
writing such reports, and that t£e rank and file are not yet trained 
enough to take up a fire position. Some sort of a report the officers 
will perforce write, and as to the troops, in such small numbers they 
will get there somehow. Everyone will make mistakes of course, 
but, then, I say, let them make mistakes. The more the better, from 
an instructor's point of view, for he, like the literary critic, lives upon 
the errors of others. 

Not only would more be leaned by the scheme I have suggested 
than by ])racticing for several hours the mechanism of a movement 
that can be le-araed in 10 minutes, but everyone would be interested, 
and a power of stimulating interest is the hall-mark of a good teacher. 

144. I trust tliis little example of mine will not be twisted into a 
theory that soldiers should begin to run before they can walk. Not 
at all. Only, under the particular conditions obtaining in the A\is- 
tralian Army, it is well that a long drill should, at the end, get into 
touch, even faultily, and for a few minutes, with the reality for which 
it is meant to be a preparation. * 

Army Service Corps. 

145. The Army Service Corps hav-e always distinguished them- 
selves on my parades by their excellent turnout and bearing. I have 
made it my business to examine as closely as time would admit into 
their work in the camps, work upon which the well-being and con- 
tent of the rest of the troops closely hinge. A suitable selection in 
trades makes it easy for them to fall into their various tasks. 

But I consider that on certain occasions too much demand has 
been made on their strength, and a slight increase to their establish- 
ment of trainees appears to me advisable. Also, it would bo well 
if the companies, with their transport, could be brought into camp 
the day before the rest of the troops. - Some hire of transport would 
thus be sa\cd, and the depot could be got into working order to meet 
the fii'Pt rush. 

When moving on roads, march discipline assumes great impor- 
taice; a column of transport must either- keep to the left halt of the 
road or arrangamcnts for clearing the road rapidly from the rear must 
be practiced as a matter of drill. 

Altogether, this is a highly satisfactory and efficient branch of the 
Commonwealth service. 

Army Medical Corps. 

146. The system of attaching the field units of the Army Medical 
Corps to combatant units during the periods of continuous training 
is much to be commended as being excellent training for war. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 103 

In every camp inspected, I hav^e visited the hospital tents; the 
beds were, fortunately, for the most part empty; the rare occupants 
that I found were receiving every care and attention. 

The drivers of the ambulance wagons are efficient; all ranks take 
the keenest professional pride in their duties, and the turnout and 
general appearance on ceremonial parades have struck me favorably. 

Aviation. 

147. The Flying School was visited at a fortunate moment. One of 
the new B. E. machines had been finished the night before, and was 
ready to take the air. 

The situation of the school is ideal; it is well away from interfer- 
ence by the public; it has a sea front; there is nothing on the land 
side to break up the wind; and there is good londing grouiid every- 
where for many miles. The new sheds and workshops are progress- 
ing well, and are conveniently placed, with plenty of room for eventual 
expansion. The two instructors are fine steady fliers, and, more 
important still, have great experience in teaching. 

148. The equipment consists of a Bristol instructional machine, 
two B. E.'s, and two Deperdussin monoplanes. The Bristol machine, 
with 50-horsepower Gnome engine, is the type on which the majority 
of British pilots have taken their brevets, and is a good machine for 
the purpose. The B. E.'s are of the usual Government type, and 
were in part constructed by the Bristol Co. The rudderposts are 
not sufficiently rigid, and it is proposed to braze on two fins set at 
90°, which will probably remedy the defect. The petrol gauge is 
not visible to the pilot when a passenger is carried; this should be 
remedied. The ]:)resent tanks only hold enough petrol for about one 
and a half hours' flying, but this need not interfere with the utility 
of the machines for instructional purposes. The machine that was 
ready had -been very well trued up; although the engine had not 
been tuned to its normal revolutions, the machine flew very steadily 
with a ])assenger in a somewhat bumpy condition of the air. 

The two Dex)erdussin machines with 35-horsepower Anzani engines 
will be useful for ground work to accustom learners to the controls 
and to sitting behind their wings; it would be dangerous to allow 
them off the ground — -at any rate, pupils should on no account be 
permitted to make a turn in the air with them. 

149. For the present, it is proposed to teach in each year a limited 
number of officers of the permanent and militia forces and a limited 
number of mechanics. 

A beginning has been made with military aviation in Australia, 
and the Government have decided to continue. I venture, with 
much respect, to submit that in so deciding they have been well 
advised. True, the aeroplane is a new arm, and there are heavy 
calls being made on the Commonwealth purse to keep the older arms 
in_ the van of progress. But, although from this point of view it 
might seem prudent to hold back in the matter of flying, on the other 
Jhiand Australia should just as much aim at being ultimate mistress 
of her own air as she is of her own land and sea. Therefore, the 
sooner she makes a beginning at being self-contained in the matter 
of flying the better. 

Proceeding on this assumption it is necessary for me to ]:)oint out 
that, unless certain equipment is added, the money already spent, 



104 THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

and the money about to be spent, in running expenses of the school 
will, to a great extent, be wasted. With only one instructional 
machine, it is inevitable that the ])upils will be retained in expensive 
idleness at frequent and, olten, for long intervals. Nor do I think 
it altogether safe to send pupils straight from the 50-horsepower 
instructional machine to the last B. E. Also, it may very likely 
come to be considered necessary in the near future that sea planes 
should be provi(1ed as an adjunct to the navy. But flying is not 
learned on sea ])lanes but on aeroplanes. 

150. I therefore recommend the provision of two additional ma- 
chines for instruction, say Bristol bijilanes, with 80-horsepower 
engines; these would ])rovide intermediritc* instruction in ])reparatio i 
for the fast work. The}'' coidd, I believe, be obtained at a first cost 
of under £2,000. TheJi, ='gain, the governing factor with regard to 
the B. E. machines will be the Renault engines, and unless a spare 
engine is provided both machines will often be out of action at the 
same time. In the alternative, two Maurice Farman's might be sub- 
stituted lor the 80-hors?])ower Bristol's, at a rather larger cost this 
would give two more Renault engines, which would be interchange- 
able with the engines of the B. E. machini^s. 

. The two sheds and r(>])air sho]i now buikUng, with the aeroplane 
tent alretid}^ in use, should give sufficient accommodation for the 
extra machines recommended. 

The Royal Military College. 

151. I inspected Duntroon on the 30th and 31st March, bringing 
to bear upon my task recollections of West Point in the States, and 
of two visits to Kingston, Canada, not to speak of r^andhurst or of 
continental military colleges. Dimtroon has been at work for three 
years, and the good that has already been accomplished reflects the 
higliest credit on the commandant and his staff. 

'i'he aim of the collegiate authorities has been to form character 
tliroiigh a thorough system of discipline, and in this I firmly believe 
eminent success has been achieved. Indeed, a happier-looking, 
smarter, keener lot of boys it wordd be impossilde to imagine. 

152. The commandant reported favorably on the work done in 
study; I myself was able to form a clear opinion on the field work. 
Battalion ch-ill was excellently carried out under the orders of senior 
cadets; the boys handled their arms brilliantly. The senior cadets 
had been given a thorough grounding in practical Light Horse, 
Field Artillery, and Engineer work, which wiU stand them in good 
stead in whatever l>ranch they may serve. 

The system of interior economy appeared to function smoothly, 
and the boys' rooms were a model of neatness and good order. I 
approve entirely of the arrangements for the pay and equipment, 
which are a direct incentive to a modest, unostentatious style of 
living. 

153. The framing of a complete curriculum for the four years' 
course is rendered a little difficult by lack of explicit and authoritative 
rulings as to liow tlie yoimgoflicers are to be emplo^-ed on leaving the 
college. If my proposals for the organization of a business depart- 
ment are adopted, the number of cadets passing through Duntroon 
may have to be curtailed. In any event, fewer ofl:cers will be 



THE AUSTEALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 105 

reqviired than was anticipated (see Appendix H), and this fact must; 
to some extent, affect the output from the college. 

154. I earnestly hope that Lord Kitchener's proposal to attach 
young officers for a time to units of the Imperial forces will be carried 
through. Keeping in view the problems that face Australia in the 
eastern seas, I would suggest that India offers unique opportunities 
for these young ofhcers to imbibe the spirit and principles of the 
British troops with whom they may some day stand shoulder to 
shoulder, and, generally, to study the characteristics of Asiatics. 

Pensions for the Permanent Force. 

155. Pensions are things which lie out on a sort of Tom Tidler's 
ground midway between military organization and State policy. 
It is optional to me, therefore, to pass on and look the other way, 
or to run on to the debatable territory and perhaps get caught. 
One good excuse and three fair reasons impel me to adventure upon 
the latter course of action: 

(1) Lord Kitchener referred to pensions in his report (par. 44). 

(2) The shadow of the indigent veteran has dogged my footsteps 
throughout my tour. 

(3) The first cadets from Duntroon are graduating and it may 
discourage them, on the outset of their career, if they see old officers 
who have done distinguished service reduced to taking junior clerk- 
ships in order to save their families from destitution. 

(4) Wherever regulations are pitiless there is a tendency for the 
divine emotion of pity to reassert itself in some irregular, and there- 
fore, harmful way. An old officer or noncommissioned officer comes 
to the end of his tether. It is patent to all the Army that his useful 
sphere of service has already been exceeded, but no one wants to see 
him, on that account, struggling with starvation. What happens? 
The tender heart of authority is touched. The time-expired veteran 
is extended. Thereby work suffers and hope deferred makes sick 
the hearts of dozens of anxious juniors. 

The Canadian Government has recently instituted a contributory 
pension scheme for its officers, which is, I was given to understand, 
working admirably. 

The Government Factories. 

156. Every superintendent went out of his way to show me as much 
as possible during my visits to the factories under the control of the 
Department of Defense. But, in default of a staff of experts, I am 
not competent to submit any detailed analysis, and I merely com- 
ment on a few points that came within my notice. 

The good conditions under which the employees work is a credit 
to the Commonwealth Government, who liere set a fine standard, 
not only before private employers, but also to other older and 
wealthier Governments. 

157. Though no expert, I have carefully inspected on previous 
occasions the Birmingham Small Arms, Enfield, and the Ross Rifle 
Factory at Quebec. Lithgow is equipped with thoroughly modern 
machinery, such as magnetic chucks and, what seemed to me, a 
particularly effective rifling machine. I noticed that the oil employed 
in the furnaces allows of nice adjustments in temperature. 



106 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

158. The sooner Australia stands on its own legs in the production 
of munitions of war the better. The experiments now being made 
at the smaU-armxS factory at lithgow in the direction of replacing 
continental wahiut by Queensland maple in the manufacture of 
stocks, are so much to the good. The cost per rifle must also be 
viewed from this standpoint of a self-contained Australia. Even if 
this cost remains permanently higher than the normal price at homp^ 
a rifle stands on a different platform from dry goods or machinery. 
Only the State must see to it that advantage is not taken of a depart- 
ment being a close borough to make the price too high. 

159. I think myself it might be well if an independent expert 
from the home factories were invibeji to come over every few years 
to visit the Lithgow works. Whilst I was at Quebec a talented expert 
had come out from England to examine. He locked the stable door; 
but already, alas, a very expensive horse had found its way down 
the long lane to which there is no turning. 

160. Taking into account the conditions of labor, the cost of 
locally produced acetone, and the fact that the machinery has only 
recently been installed, I consider that the price at whicli cordite is 
produced at Maribyrnong compares favorably with home prices. 
Whenever the proposed manufacture of gun cordite is commenced, 
the cleaning of the cotton will have to be carried out on a higher 
and more expensive scale. 

Lead linings to the boiling vats are being tried at Waltham Abbey 
with good results, and I would recommend that a similar experiment 
should be tried in Australia. 

161. Ai-my clothing is a favorite topic of complaint all the world 
over. During my inspections I have heard a few gi-owls about the 
uniforms supplied to tne citizen forces, but certainl}^ it is smart and 
serviceable. Most of the representations made to me concerned the 
cadets, and were to the eft'ect that lighter material should be issued 
for summer wear, as the boys found the present heavy shirts, breeches, 
and putties very trying in the hot weather. I merely echo these 
remarks for what the authorities may consider them to be worth. 

162. The harness factory obtains that independent government 
examination of its products which I have recommended for the other 
establishments. 

The Commonwealth pattern girth, which 1 saw in the making, 
I consider a capital type of article. 

IX. CONCLUSION. 

163. Of all the misrepresentations bandied to and fro on the 
subject of the Territorial forces of the old country the most gross and 
palpable has always seemed to me to be embodied in the statement 
that these citizen soldiers would not be ready to flght until six months 
after a declaration of war. If Englishmen and Scotchmen had really 
fallen so far away L^ehind the standards of former generations, then, 
obviously, no amount of expenditure in money or service would 
suffice to prolong the existence of so WTetched a race of beings. 
Actually the Territorial forces of the United Kingdom are not only 
ready, but burning, to fight the moment an enemy will oblige them 
by landing on British shores. * But however monstrous an aspersion 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 107 

may be, if it lives on, it will usually be found that it can lay claim 
to being some sort of distant poor relation to the truth, the truth in 
this case being that they would fight less effectively to-morrow 
than after six months' embodiment. 

164. So also with Australia's Aimy of to-day, and it is my object 
in these last lines to state how far they would be ready did the oc- 
casion ris3 now — at once — to hold their own against disciplined 
troops from regions washed by the Pacific. 

The whole of the Regulars and three-fourths of the actual serving 
militia are sufficiently trained to take part in a modern battle — sup- 
posing the occasion to arise the day after to-morrow. With two 
weeks' warning the lemaining fourth of the militia, plus some 20,000 
of the flower of the rifle clubs, would be available as re inforcements. 
Were the Australian forces then defeated, the defense of the country 
would resolve itself into a guerrilla problem, where at once it passes 
beyond the reckonings of recognized ndlitary science. 

165. I have said that three-fourths of the actual serving militia may 
be relied upon to fight against any force of invaders in the open fields 
and certainly to kill a good number of them. By this I moan to say 
that a large proportion of the Australian forces have not only the will- 
ing spirit but also the technical instruction and discipline to enable 
one man to handle them during a concentration as well as in action. 
But now the further question arises. How would they fare upon the 
battle field? My own opinion is that, giving all due weight to the 
moral factor (i. e., that the men would be defending a country well 
worth defending and would be very angry) — giving, I say, due weight 
to this factor and to the advantage they would possess in knowing 
how to work over their own peculiar paddocks and bush — they would 
need to be in a majority of at least two to one to fight a pitched battle 
with picked regular tioops from overseas on equal terms. Compara- 
tive lack of disciphne and cohesion showing up strongly where large 
forces were involved — these are my reasons for allowing so large a 
margin of superiority to the invading forces. 

166. Everyone will form his own opinion upon my estimate. At 
best it is but a paper estimate and op?n to a hundred qualifications 
and suppositions. Stid it is an attempt to convey an opinion, and 
the only difl^erenc'^ between my opinion and the opinions of those 
who may hereafter traverse it is that I am paid to give my views, 
and also that not many Europeans have been privileged to inspect 
as I have the native troops of India, the United States Regulars, the 
Japanese Army, the French, German, and Russian detachments in 
in Asia, and the reformed Chinese troops. 

167. Finally, no one can have studied this report without under- 
standing that each year, between now and 1919-20, the units of the 
Austialian Army should improve in efficiency at the rate of something 
certainly not less than 10 per cent per annum. 



APPENDIXES. 



Appendix A.- — Statement shoiving amounts expended on defense for each of the last 10 years. 





Naval. 


Military. 


Total de- 
fense ex- 
penditure. 


Year. 


Cost of 
mainte- 
nance. 


Other 
expendi- 
ture.' 


Total. 


Cost ol 
mainte- 
nance. 


Other 

expendi- 

tiire.2 


Total. 


1904-5 


£47,991 
46, 180 
51,725 
56, 449 
60,653 
64,468 
103,753 
264,295 
633,305 
902, 453 


£151,551 

2a5,688 

204, 151 

454,897 

207, 452 

265,643 

1,371,2.50 

1,385,095 

1,027,273 

1,528,965 


£199,542 

251,868 

255, 876 

511,346 

268, 105 

330,111 

1,475,003 

1,649,390 

1,660.578 

2, 431', 418 


£510,512 

520,370 

5hH, 734 

602,094 

654,014 

897, 264 

1,045,226 

1,446,872 

1, W\ 115 

1,910,262 


£223,007 
197, 765 
220,505 
221,065 
128,361 
308,417 
488, 476 
9S3,777 
1,062,805 
1,405,173 


£733,519 

718,135 

779,239 

823, 159 

782,375 

1,205,&S1 

1,533,702 

2,430,649 

2, 670, 920 

3,315,435 


£933,061 


1905-6 


970, 003 


1906-7 


1,035,115 


1907-8 


1,334,505 


190S-9 


1,050,480 


1909-10 


1,535,792 


1910-11 


3,008,705 


1911-12 


4, 080, 039 


1912-13 


4,331,498 


1913-14 (estimated).... 


» 5, 746, 853 



1 Includes expenditure on naval works, buildings, sites, rents, and repairs; arms, equipment, etc., con- 
struction of fleet; pajnnent under naval agreement act. 

2 Includes expenditure on buildings, sites, etc., rent, repairs, etc., rifle ranges, military stores; interest 
on transferred properties; miscellaneous. 

8 Estimated that a saving of £500,000 will be effected on this sum. 

Appendix B. — Military forces of the Commonwealth — Duties assigned to each member 

of the Military Board. 



The Chief of the 
General Staff is 
charged with all 
preparation for 
war, as follows: 
Organization for 
war, training, 
and instruction 
other than that 
allotted to the 
Adjutant G e n- 
•era!, education 
and examination 
for first appoint- 
ment and promo- 
tion of ollicers, 
field operations 
and promulga- 
tion of o])eration 
orders, schemes 
for maneuvers, 
including c o n - 
centration, allo- 
cation of funds 
for maneuvers 
and t r a i n i ng, 
plans of concen- 
tration for war, 
preparation and 
maintenance of 
defense schemes, 
military libra- 
ries, intelligence, 
drill books and 
manuals dealing 
with training 
and military in- 
struction and 
war organiza- 
tion, censorship. 



The Adjutant General is 
charged with the enrol- 
ment, organization, and 
mobilization of the troops, 
as follows: Registration, 
exemj)tions, medical in- 
spection organiza t i o n , 
peace establishments, re- 
cruiting and recruit train- 
ing, musketry, discipline, 
medical services and sani- 
tation, distribution of 
units, editing and issuing 
orders other than opera- 
tion orders and military 
books of regulations, edit- 
ing and issuing mobiliza- 
tion orders, administra- 
tion of and questions relat- 
ing to administrative and 
instructional staff, mili- 
tary clerks, personnel, ed- 
ucation and examination 
of soldiers, appointments, 
promotion, retirement, 
posting, exchange and 
transfer of otiicers, mobili- 
zation of personnel, mili- 
tary prisons and police 
and detention barracks, 
military and martial law. 
duties in aid of the civil 
power, casualties, dis- 
charges, desertion, and 
fraudulent enlistment, 
medals, ceremonial, rifle 
clubs and reserves, cadets, 
chaplains, postal services. 



The Quarter- 
master G e n - 
eral is charged 
with the 
eq u i [J III e n t 
a n d mainte- 
nance of the 
troops, as fol- 
lows: Regula- 
tions for imi- 
versal train- 
ing, dress, 
transport and 
remounts, 
V e t e r i n ary 
services, 
move in e n t s 
by land and 
sea, conv e y - 
ance of stores, 
railways, ap- 
propriat ion, 
oc c u p a t i on 
and equip- 
ment of bar- 
racks, supply 
of food, forage, 
clothing, 
arms and am- 
munition, 
stores and 
equip m e n t , 
mobilizat i o n 
arrangement s 
connected 
with the 
above serv- 
ices, adininis- 
tration of 
corps dealing 
with the 
above serv- 
ices. 



The Chief of 
Ordnance is 
charged with 
the questions 
relating to 
annam e n t s , 
fixed defenses, 
and Engineer 
services, as fol- 
lows: Arrange- 
ments for the 
construct i o n 
and mainte- 
nance of forti- 
fications, bar- 
racks, store 
buildings, and 
ranges, pat- 
terns, provi- 
sion, inspec- 
t i n , and 
maintenan c e 
of annaments 
and vehicles, 
patents, and 
inv en t i ons, 
admin i s t r a - 
tion of the 
staff and per- 
manent force 
connected 
with the 
above, techni- 
cal instruc- 
tion of Artil- 
lery and En- 
gineers, i n 
eluding 
schools, pro- 
mulgation of 
changes in 
war material. 



The fi n a n c e 
member will 
l)e charged 
with military 
finance, as fol- 
lows: Consid- 
eration and 
conipihtion of 
Parliiunentar y 
esthnates, re- 
view of pro- 
posals for new 
expenditure, or 
the redistribu- 
tion of the 
sums allotted 
to the differ- 
ent subheads 
of defense 
votes, finan- 
cial advice, 
treasury r e- 
qu i r e ni e n ts, 
claims, com- 
p e n s ation — 
death or in- 
jury. 



108 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 
Appendix C. 



109 



Military district. 


Number 

of 
brigade 
areas. 


Number 

of 

battalion 

areas. 


Number 

ol 

training 

areas. 


First 


3 

8 

2 
1 

1 


12 

32 

29 

9 

6 

4 


31 




72 


Third 


65 


Fourth 


23 


Fifth 


15 


Sixth 


11 






Total 


22 


192 


217 







1 Proposed to form only 8S battalions before 1920. 
Appendix D. — Rates of pay for citizen forces . 



Rank. 



A.rtillery and Engineers— 
25 days per annum. 



Rate per 
whole day. 



Amount per 
annum. 



Other arms— 16 days 
per annum . 



Rate per 
whole day 



Amount 
per annum. 



£ s. d. 



Colonel or bricadier 

T ieutenant colonel 

Major 

Captain 

Lieutenant, second lieutenant 
Regimental sergeant major. . . 

Company sergeant major 

Sergeant 

Corporal 

Private 

Recruits 



2 5 

1 17 6 

1 10 n 

12 6 

15 

12 

11 

10 

9 

4 

3 



56 5 
46 17 



37 10 



28 2 6 

18 15 

15 

V, 15 

12 10 

11 5 

5 

3 15 



£ s. d. 

2 5 

1 17 6 

1 10 

1 2 6 

15 

12 

11 

10 

9 

4 

3 



£ .?. d. 

36 

30 

24 

18 

12 

9 12 

8 16 

8 

7 4 

3 4 

2 8 



Half-day parades shall be paid for at one-half and night drills at one-quarter of the 
above rates. 

HORSE ALLOWANCE. 

Officers and soldiers of Light Horse units shall be granted horse allowance at the 
rate of 5s. per diem for each mounted parade attended, provided that the total amount 
paid to an officer or soldier in any one year shall not exceed £4. 

Payment of horse allowance to be made at times of payment of militia pay, i.e., (a) In 
camp of continuous training, or on return from camp, at discretion of commandant; 
(6) in the month of June of each financial year. 



110 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



Appendix E. — Table shoiving the tmits yet to be formed to complete divisions, Light 
Horse brigades, and other field formations by 1919-20, bi4 excluding administration 
units for lines of communication. 



Units, etc., required to complete. 






Military district. 






Fir-t. 


Second. 


Third 


Fourth 


Filth. 


Sltth. 


Total. 


Divisional headciuarters 














6 


Litrht Horse- 

Lif^ht Fl orse brigade headquarters 




1 
i 


1 
3 
1 








2 


I-i'.,'ht Horse resriments 










6 


divisional squadrons 




2 






4 


Pield Artillery: 

Divisional Artillerv headquarters 








6 


Field Artillery brigade headquarters 

Field batteries: 




1 

1 
2 
1 


2 

8 
1 

3 
4 
2 


3 

10 
2 

3 
5 
2 


1 

2 
1 

1 

1 
1 


1 
1 


1 
1 


9 

2.5 


Howitzer 


5 


Ammnnilion columns: 

Light Horse brigade 






8 




1 


1 


14 


Field Artillerv (howitzer') battery 


6 


Divisional 






6 


Engineers: 

Divisional Engineers, headtiuartcrs 














G 




C) 


2 
1 

1 
1 

4 
12 

1 
2 
4 

1 
4 


11 


h 


1 


i 


61 


Signal troops 


2" 


Divisional signal companies 










2 


Wireless companies 










2 


Tnfantry: 

Infantry brigade, headquarters 


2 
5 


1 

4 






10 


Battalions 


1 




33 


Army Service Corps: 

Oomnanies (T ight Horse brigades; 


2 




1 
1 


1 






6 


Tomnanies 






8 


Army Medical Corps: 

I/ight Horse field ambulances 








2 


Field ambulances 


1 


1 






9 











» Includes three permanent batteries. 2 Two half companies. 

Appendix F. — Physical training of boys and girls. 

All boyp of the ages of 12 and 13 years, who are medically fit, are liable to undergo 
junior cadet training, whJcli embraces physieal training (to be carried out on each 
school day for not less than 15 minutes), elementary marching drill, and the attain- 
ment of a certain standard of efficiency in not less than one of the following subjects: 
(a) Miniature rifle shooting, (h) swimming, (c) running in organized games, (d) first aid. 

The training of junior cadets is carried out by the school-teachers, but boys not in 
attendance at schools are trained by the military staff. The latter are very fe>v, as 
most of the States now provide for compulsory attendance at school up to the age of 14. 
The training is inspected annually, and an allowance of 2s. 6d. per effective junior 
cadet is made to head teachers of schools to defray cost of providing equipment, etc. 

Fifteen instructors have been appoint.-d by the Defense Department for the instruc- 
tion of teachers. These instructors conduct courses of instruction for teachers, and 
issue certificates as "Instructors of junior cadet training" to those who qualify. In 
addition, they visit the schools periodically for instructional purposes. The expenses 
of teachers attending schools of instruction are defrayed by the Defense Department. 

Although the Defense Department is only responsible for the instruction of those 
teachers who train junior cadets, the education departments of the several States, 
being desii-ous of extending the scheme of physical training to their sc^hoolgirls, 
unanimously asked for a course of in<5truction to be arranged for their women teachers. 
A special course of instruction was held accordingly during three weeks in 1913, at 
which 22 women teachers from the several States attended. In addition to physical 
training, attention was given to anatomy and first aid, and special medical lecturers 
were employed in connection -with these subjects. Certificates of competency were 
awarded to 20 of the teachers in attendance. Several of these teachers have since 
been employed by the State departments as "specialists" solely for the instruction of 
women teachers and schoolt;irls in physical training. 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



Ill 



Appendix G. — Approved allotment of members of rifle clubs on mobilization, 1913-14 









60 per 














Balance 








cent of 










Total 


Per- 


of col- 






Total 
strength 
of rifle 


strength 


Total 


Total 


Total 


Allot- 
ted to 
cable 
guards. 


allot- 


centage 


umn 4 






of clubs 


number number allotted 


ment to 


of col- 


avail- 


Military district. 


ber of 
rifle 


esti- 
mated 


allotted allotted 
to Liiht to In- 


to A.S. 
C. and 


units 
and 


umn 4 
allotted 


able for 
future 




clubs. 


clubs. 


fit for 


Horse. 


lantry. 


A.M.C. 


cable 


to 


allot- 








active 










guards. 


units. 


ment to 








service. 














units. 


(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 


(7) 


(8) 


(9) 


(10) 


(11) 


First 


216 
303 
325 
119 
124 
46 


9,098 
14,099 
15,321 
4,906 
2,371 
1,770 


5,459 
8,460 
9,193 
2,944 
, 1,422 
1,062 


610 
760 
922 
381 
166 
128 


3,105 
3,748 
5,280 
1,191 
997 
771 


142 

1,274 


79 


67 



25 
25 


3,924 
4,508 
7,476 
1,572 
1,188 
1,003 


71.8 
53.2 
81.3 
53.4 
83.5 
94.4 


1,535 


Second 


3,952 


Third 


1,717 


Fourth 


1,372 


Fifth 


234 


Sixth 


59 






Total 


1,133 


47,565 


28,540 


2,967 


15,092 


1,495 


117 


19, 671 


68.9 


8,869 







Appendix H. — Administrative and instructional staff for militia units and territorial 

areas. 



Military unit or area. 


Proposed by 
Lord Kitchener. 


Present estab- 
lishment. 


Ultimate strength 
on present lines. 


Ultimate strength 
under proposals 
in Section IV. 




Officers. 


Other 
ranks. 


Officers. 


Other 
ranks. 


Officers. 


Other 
ranks. 


Officers. 


Other 
ranks. 








6 

24 
13 
5 


6 

35 
69 
24 
11 
19 
178 
12 
15 


8 

24 
28 
14 


8 

44 
90 
50 
11 
21 
352 
22 
22 


8 

24 
28 
14 


8 


Iiifantry brigades and brigade 


22 




24 




190 


Field Artillery 






2 50 








11 














3 21 








20 


88 


88 


88 






22 


Army Medical Corps I 










22 












4 88 






215 
12 




6 218 

8 12 


266 


6 127 
12 


300 
12 


'500 


Spare, for special courses at- 
tached to other armies or 
sick 


12 


12 






Total 


249 


MOO 


«80 
6 218 


635 


6 301 


932 


262 


848 








298 




Estimated expenditure at 
current rates 


(10') 


£188.000 


£283-000 


" £253. 400 





















1 26 regiments at 3 each and 12 divisional squadrons at 1 each. 

2 14 Field Artillery brigades at 3 each and 8 batteries at 1 each. 

8 14 field companies at 1 each and 7 for 8 signal troops and 7 divisional signal companies. 

4 For a long time to come these will be temporary appointments. 

6 Temporary. 

6 Permanent. 

' Averages 8 for country battalion areas and 4 for city battalion areas. 

8 Includes 3 attached to other armies. 

8 Lord Kitchener's proposals gave a total of 400, but did not show allocation of duties. 

10 Xo estimate framed by Lord Kitchener. Expenditure at current rates would amoimt to £160,000. 

11 Includes an allowance of £50 per annum for clerical assistance in each area office. 

Estimated— Officers average £320; noncommissioned officers average £200. 
ALLOCATION TO AREAS. 





Country. 


City. 


First district 


7 
8 
7 
6 
3 
2 


5 


Second district 


24 


Third district 


22 


Fourth district 


3 


Fifth district 


3 


Sixth district 


2 






Total 


33 


59 







Note.— Country, 33X8=264; city, 59X4=236. Total, 500. 



112 THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 





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5J 


ts 


o* 


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■s 


H 


*,^ 


W 


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Sx 



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I--.C '-I M > O) 

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"3 a Is _„ -s: 

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2 K ft ,^ J: c; 

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J °=5!i 1^^ go's ^ 

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rg = i-g «; 5 E.S g 



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t>. O J3.S O 

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■2« 



THE AUSTRALIAN SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



113 



Appendix J. — Showing proposed redistribution of duties between the departments at 

headquarters. 

[Printed and published for the Government of the Commonwealth of Australia by Albert J. Mullctt, 
Government Printer for the State of Victoria.] 



Secretary of defense (also 
permanent head of the 
Defense Department). 



Add to present 
duties: 
Subject to minister's in- 
structions, reviewing 
expenditure of the De- 
fense Department. 
Administration of the fol- 
lo^vin,^ votes — 
Division 40/1, such 
personnel as re- 
mains under the 
public service act; 
divisions 47, 48, 49. 
60, 51, 80/1; and 
preparation of esti- 
mates in connec- 
tion therewith. 



Chief of the General Staff. 



Add to present 
duties: 
Recruit training. 
Training of senior cadets. 
Musketry. 

Q uestions of policy relat- 
ing to armament and 
fixed defenses. 
Military training and in- 
struction of aU arms 
and services. 
In conjunction with 
Quartermaster Gener- 
al, administration of 
the following vote — 
Division 74/1 (1), 
and preparation 
of estimates in 
connection there- 
with. 



Adjutant General. 



Add to present 
duties: 
Administration of Artil- 
lery and Engineers. 
In conjunction with 
Quartermaster Gener- 
al's administration of 
the following votes — 
Division 40/1, all 
personnel under 
defense act; divi- 
sions 41/1, 41A/1, 
42/1, 4:i/l, 67/1, 68/1, 
69/1, 70, 71/1, 72/1; 
and preparation of 
estimates in con- 
nection therewith. 
Regulations for univer- 
sal training. 

Deduct from pre- 
sent duties: 
Recruit training. 
Training of senior cadets. 
MuslvCtry. 

Appointments, promo- 
tions, postings, etc., of 
Quartermaster Gener- 
al's personnel. 



Quartermaster General. 



Add to present 
duties: 
Duties of the Chief of 
Ordnance and of the 
finance member not 
allotted elsewhere. 
Administrative instruc- 
tion. 
In conjunction with 
Adjutant General, 
framing rules and regu- 
lations alfccting terms 
of service, promotions, 
retirements, etc., of 
Quartermaster Gener- 
al's personnel. 
Appointments, promo- 
tions, postings, etc., of 
Quartermaster Gener- 
al's personnel. 
Administration of the 
following votes — 
Divisions 40/5, 6, 7, 
41/2, 41A/2, 42/2, 
43/2, 45, 46, 52, 67/2, 
3, 6S/2, 3, 72/2, 73/1, 
74/1 (2), 75, 76, 77. 
78, 79, 80/2; and 
preparation of esti- 
mates in connec- 
tion therewith. 
Deduct from pre- 
sent duties: 
Regulations for universal 
training. 



Division 44 will be administered as at present by the commandant. Royal Military College, Duntroon. 
Note.— The divisions quoted above are those contained in estimates 1913-14. 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 8 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



115 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

In view of the increased interest of the American people in the 
subject of national defense and the many inquiries in regard to the 
military systems of various countries, it seems appropriate at this 
time to furnish a description of the system by which Switzerland has 
solved the problem of national defense. 

The notes herewith are compiled from the following reports on file 
at the Army War College. 

Report of Lieut. Col. George Bell, jr., November, 1911. 

Report of Capt. T. B. Mott, Field Artillery, 1905. 

Report of Capt. S. J. Bayard Schindel, General Staff United States 
Army, 1907. 

Report of Lieut. Col. WiUiam Cary Sanger, National Guard of New 
York, 1900. 

NOTES SHOWING THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE SWISS MIU- 

TARY SYSTEM. 

[From report of Lieut. Col. George Bell, jr., November, 1911.] 

Switzerland, with a population (3,315,443) smaller than that of 
Massachusetts, and with an area less than twice that of the same 
State, can mobilize 240,000 trained and properly equipped soldiers 
inside of 24 hours. Behind this force is a reserve of about the same 
size, part of whom are armed and have received training, and may be 
used to fill casualties, for the defense of positions and for special duties 
of various kinds. 

In many respects the Swiss Republic resembles our own, as their 
Cantons correspond to our States, and the greater portion of the 
Army belongs to the different Cantons and not to the Federal Gov- 
ernment, whose troops are but a very small fraction of the whole, 
although the Confederation has, with the consent of cantonal author- 
ity, charge of all recruiting for military service. 

Every Swiss citizen owes military service from the commencement 
of the year in which he attains the age of 20 to the end of that in which 
he reaches 48, and must present himself during his twentieth year at a 
designated place in his location for physical and mental examination. 
The place and time for this examination are published in the local 
newspapers and posted on bulletin boards. It is considered a mis- 
fortune to be rejected, but the examination is thorough and only 
about 50 per cent are accepted. The mental examination to test the 
instruction given in school requires a knowledge of reading, writing, 
arithmetic, and the history and geography of Switzerland, and if not 
sufficient the recruit must attend evening school in his town until he 
reports for duty. 

117 



118 lUE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

After the examination, if successful, the man is given a soldier's 
register, in which is stated the result of the examination, and he is 
allowed to return home. Later on notice is sent to him to report at 
the training place to which he has been assigned. There is one of 
these places for each division of Infantry, and also separate training 
grounds for the Artillery, Cavalry, and Engineers. In 1910 there 
were 19,494 recruits accepted. 

The men for the different arms are selected largely because of their 
occupation. Thus Engineers are assigned to the Engineer Corps, 
telegraphers to the telegraph companies, young country farmers to 
the cavalry, the mountam guides and climbers to the Mountain 
Artillery, and so on, every advantage being taken of a man's trade 
or profession to improve the Army and also to lessen the amount of 
special training required. 

AU men accepted are insured by the Government against sickness 
or accident contracted while in service, and men not accepted are 
taxed because of their exemption until after they have reached 40 
years of age, this tax being in addition to aU other taxes. 

The elite, or active army, is composed of aU men between 20 and 32 
(except in the Cavalry, where it is 30) years of age, who have been 
able to pass the required mental and physical examinations and are 
accepted. After 32 (m the Cavalry, 30) the soldier passes to the 
landwehr; and after 40, until 48, he belongs to the landsturm, as do 
all other soldiers who have become hicapacitated for service in the 
elite and landwehr, but are still able to serve in the landsturm, and 
also all volunteers possessing sufficient knowledge to shoot and the 
necessary physical fitness. 

TRAINING OF RECRUITS. 

When a recruit reports at his training place or school he is fitted 
out with a uniform and equipment, complete in every particular for 
field service, and given a rifle. These articles he takes home with 
him after his training is over and keeps them until the end of his 
military service. "Wlien he is turned out for any purpose he has to 
present himself fully equipj^ed, and if anything is missing he can be 
fined or imprisoned. The purpose of the schools for recruits is not 
only the traming of recruits to become soldiers, but also to educate 
the cadres. The length of time for the school for recruits is fixed as 
follows : 

Days. 

Infantry 65 

Cavalry 90 

Artillery 75 

Foot Artillery (fortification troops) 75 

Engineers 65 

, Sanitary troops (Hospital Service) 60 

Commissariat 60 

Train 60 

Where special training takes place in separate courses, recruits 
have to serve only 40 days of the schools above mentioned. For exam- 
ple, soldiers of the Hospital Service have to follow a special course 
m the hospital, but the 40 days of the recruit school must be served 
first. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OP NATIONAL DEFENSE. 119 

Each recruit school is under the charge of a field officer who belongs 
to the corps of permanent military instructors, of whom there are 
about 215, and who are professional soldiers most carefully selected. 
He is assisted in the charge of this school by a number of assistant 
instructors and also by a suitable number of commissioned and 
noncommissioned officers from the Army. 

Each day at least eight hours' hard work is required, except on 
Sunda3's, and even then they are frequently sent out for night work 
in the evening. There is a great deal of night work, night firing, 
constructing trenches, etc., but it does not interfere with that 
required each day, for, although the recruits may be out until 3 
o'clock in the morning, the work next da}^ proceeds as usual. 

The men are taught to keep their kits and arms in shape, are given 
instruction in hygiene, in the regulations and in the theory of shoot- 
ing, besides having all kinds of outdoor exercises. 

After completion of his course at the school the recruit is allowed 
to retuni to his home and then becomes a regular member of the organ- 
ization to which he is assigned. 

Universal education is compulsory in Switzerland to the age of 15, 
and in all schools a certain amount of g\aiinastic training is always 
given to improve the physique, and as a preparation for the military 
service, and recently more care has been given to it than formerly, 
and an attempt to get more uniformity has been made. 

The interest shown in rifle shooting by all has been the means of 
educating almost all the Swiss youth in the handling and use of 
arms. So, except for the collective firing, night firing, and firing at 
unknown distances, time has been gained m recruit training by it 
not being necessary to devote a great deal of time to gvmnastic 
training and individual firing. Money is saved and the period for 
trainmg shortened whenever possible; thus, to save ammunition and 
get the greatest benefit from the fire every sergeant of infantry carries 
a field glass, and children carry their schoolbooks and other packs 
on their backs, so it is not necessary to accustom the recruit to carry 
his knapsack, 

PERMANENT INSTRUCTORS. 

The uniformity and efficiency of the instruction and training in the 
entire Army is due to the work of the permanent instructors, who 
practically spend their entire time out of doors with the various 
classes or units undergoing instruction; aiding, advising, correcting, 
and noting. They may be, and are, assigned to command of a unit, 
viz, battalion, regmient, brigade, division, or army corps, but not 
more than one-fourth of the entire number may be upon this duty at 
one time. They also act as umpires at maneuvers. 

REPETITION COURSES. 

In the elite a repetition course of 14 days is held every year for the 
"Artillery" and fortification troops (Foot Artillery), and of 11 days 
for all the other arms. Privates, privates of the first class, and cor- 
porals have, however, to serve only 7 (in the Cavalry 8) repetition 
courses in the elite. Higher noncommissioned officers, beginning with 
the grade of sergeant, have to serve 10 repetition courses in the elite. 



120 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

These repetition courses must take place alternately in the small and 
large corps units. 

In the landwehr a repetition course of 11 days takes place every 
4 3"ears for all the different arms. Privates and corporals have to 
serve only one repetition course in the landwehr. Landwshr soldiers 
who are detailed to the elite must serve their repetition course with 
the elite. 

The Federal Assembly has the authority to order special courses, 
to take place in case of a new organization of a part (unit) of the 
Army or when new arms (rifles or heavy guns) are adopted, and for 
parts of the landsturm (second and land reserve) for from one to 
three days for special purposes. 

^ SHOOTING OBLIGATIONS AND VOLUNTARY ACTIVITY. 

AU noncommissioned officers, corporals, and privates (soldiers) of 
the elite and landwehr provided with the long rifle or short carbine 
are obliged to do the shooting practice yearly, such as officially pre- 
scribed, in one of the existing voluntary shooting societies. Those 
who neglect to comply with the said prescription have to attend a 
special course for target ])ractice without pay. 

The shooting exercises in the voluntary (private) shooting societies 
receive the support of the Confederation, provided that such practice 
is taking place in conformity with military prescriptions. The 
Confederation provides for special training of shooting masters 
(controlling private instructors of voluntary societies). 

The Confederation also supports all voluntary activity in connec- 
tion with military education (drill, trainmg, etc.) according to the 
merit of such activity, and provided that it be duly organized and 
placed under the control of the Confederation. (There exist military 
societies, the central society of noncommissioned officers, etc., for 
the purpose of training while in civil life; which societies are suj)- 
ported by the Government.) 

TRAINING OF NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 

Schools for noncommissioned officers of 20 days are prescribed for 
Infantry, Hospital, Commissariat, and Train Troops, and of 35 days 
for Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, and Foot Artillery (fortification 
troops). The proposal or selection of the men to attend these schools 
is made in recruit schools by the officers of the troop and the instruct- 
ors (permanent officers) in repetition courses by the officers of the 
units of the troops. 

Newly appointed corporals, with exception of those who are selected 
to pass a school for officers, have to serve in a recruit school. 

TRAINING AND EDUCATION OF OFFICERS. 

The training for officers takes place in schools for officers of a time 
of 80 days for Infantry, Cavalry, and Foot Artiflery (fortification 
troops) ; 105 days for Artillery and Engineers (in two parts) ; GO days 
for Train Troops; and 45 days for Hospital (sanitary service), Com- 
misssariat, and Veterinarians. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 121 

Noncommissioned officers will be selected as aspirants to become 
officers in recruit schools and noncommissioned officers' schools by 
the officers of the troops and the instructors, in repetition courses by 
the commanders of the units. In the hospital (sanitary service) as 
well as in the veterinary service, aspirants tor ofhcers are selected by 
the Surgeon General of the Army and the chief commander of the vete- 
rinary service, respectively. The last-named aspirants (doctors, vete- 
rinarians, and apothecaries) must have passed a Federal professional 
examination. 

The newly appointed lieutenants have to serve in a recruit school, 
doctors and veterinarians in one of the other arms. Officers selected 
for quartermaster (paymaster) must attend a school of 20 days, and 
after their appointment they have to serve in one-half of a recruit 
school. Officers, who in a recruit school or in a repetition course, 
have proved' their fitness for a higher rank must attend a central 
school as follows: 

Central school I, of 30 days, the subaltern officers of the Infantry, 
Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, and Foot Artillery (fortification troops) 
for the appointment of captain. 

First lieutenants of Infantr}^, Cavalry, Engineers, Foot Artillery, 
Artillery, Commissariat and Train Troops, who are selected for pro- 
motion must serve in the position of commander of a unit in a school 
for recruits. 

A central school II, of 50 days (which may take place in two parts), 
for captains who are selected for a higher rank. 

For captains of the hospital (sanitary service), veterinarians, com- 
missariat, and train troops the central school II can be substituted 
by a special school. 

For the education of officers the Federal Assembly may prescribe 
special school for target practice and technical and tactical schools; 
for the purpose of education officers may also be called in to serve in 
schools or courses of other arms. 

PEOMOTION. 

Promotion from second Ueutenant to first lieutenant and from first 
lieutenant to captain is by seniority, but certificates of capacity are 
necessary. First lieutenants who do not show capacity pass to the 
landwehr. Captains usually serve about six years before promotion 
to major, which comes only upon recommendation of superiors, and 
if not promoted captains serve in the elite until they reach 38 years of 
age, and in the landwehr until they reach 44 years of age. 

Superior officers serve in the elite and in the landwehr until they 
reach 48. In the landsturm aU officers serve until after they are 52. 
With their consent, however, officers may be kept in the service 
beyond the hmits stated. Officers who are young enough to serve in 
the elite may be transferred to the landwehr or to the landsturm, or 
officers who are of an age to serve in the landwehr may be sent to the 
landsturm. A major must serve at least two years in that grade 
before promotion, and a lieutenant colonel, also, must serve at least 
two years as such. 

Recommendations for promotion to include the grade of lieutenant 
colonel go through regular channels from the officer under whom the 
officer promoted wiU serve to the division commander; and if the 



122 THE SWISS SYSTEM OE NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

chief of the arm (a Regular officer) considers the promotion merited 
he issues the necessary certificate. For regimental and brigade com- 
manders a board, composed of the Secretary of War, the chief of the 
arm concerned, and the division commander, send in two names 
from which the executive selects one. Division commanders are 
usually taken from brigade commanders in much the same manner. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE REVIEW. 

^ A military observer can not watch the marching past of more than 
21,000 Swiss troops, of all arms, as we did on August 31, at Moret 
and at Gilley, witliout being impressed by the steadiness of a force, 
trained so quickly, which is intended primarily for business, and not 
for show, as this is practically their only ceremony. All Swiss train- 
ing has but one object, namely, the defense of the fatherland. All 
work is m the field and on the target range ; not in a drill hall, which 
is unkno\^ii except for riding, and not on a parade ground, which is 
only for fresh recruits, and even on this there is a course of obstacles 
of all kinds; walls, fences, logs, ditches, jumps, etc., which all new 
men must go over a couple of times each day. 

The march past of all the troops was most creditable, and the 
horses, both Cavalry and Artillery, were remarkably good and well 
handled. AU officers were well mounted, some exceptionally so. 

MOBILIZATION OF A BATTALION. 

As an example of the mobilization of a battalion of the Swiss 
Army would state that on September 25th the Forty-first Battalion 
was ordered to mobilize in a certain square in Lucerne. In this 
square were several tables, and between 8 and 9 o'clock the men 
commenced to report, completely equipped. As soon as- a man 
reported he took his place in the section to which he belonged, and 
then commenced a general inspection of the man and his entire 
equipment by the lieutenants in charge of these sections. The in- 
spection was most thorough ; every article being held up and examined, 
socks being pulled apart to see that they had no holes in them, trousers 
were examined to see that they were sound and in good condition, as 
were all other articles of clothing. Every soldier had a good pair of 
extra shoes besides the serviceable pair he wore. The meat can and 
canteen were tlioroughly inspected and a short time was given to the 
men to clean rifles, each man, being provided with rags which he has 
brought with him for this purpose, at once cleaned his rifle, and then, 
the breechblock being removed and a mirror being put into the 
breech, each piece v>^as thoroughly scrutinized, the breechblocks were 
examined, put in place, and tried in the gun seviTal times to see that 
they worked properly. 

U The dross coats in which the men reported were taken off, carefully 
tagged and marked, and blouses were brought over to the company 
from the storehouses in which they hiid been kept; all having been 
washed and thoroughly repaired since the last time they had been 
used. The dress coats were carefully folded and wrapped up in the 
cloths in which the blouses had been tied. Each man selected a 
blouse, which, after he had adjusted the belt, was thoroughly inspected 
by the section commander, and in case it did not fit the man was 
compelled to change with some other man, or to obtain anotlier 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. ' 123 

blouse. At the end of the inspection the blouses looked very well, 
and after everything Imd been thorouglily inspected the surgeon, 
accompanied by the section commander, made a thorough inspection 
of the arms and haxids of each man. 

Three cooks had re])orted early, and by noon a good dinner, con- 
sisting oi soup, sausage, and bread, was issued to the men. There 
was no loud talking, and no laughter or boisterous conduct of any 
kind, and there was no confusion. The entrenching tools, which the 
men did not keep, were issued to the men, and before noon every man 
had his complete equipment, in every way, and the major had given 
what instruction's he desired to his captains; the captains giving them 
to the lieutenants, and the heutenants to their subordinates. 
\ At 8 o'clock in the morning there had been practically nothing in 
the square. Before 2 o'clock there was a complete body of trained 
soldiers, who had been organized; and the band, with a platoon, was 
sent down to escort the colors to the battalion, which were received 
very much in the same way as our own people do on such an occasion. 
After the colors were received, and the guard had taken its proper 
place, the band played the national anthem, and the entire battalion 
sang it. After this was over the battalion marched to the station 
with its wagon train and entrained, without any noise, confusion, or 
delay. Ev^ery thing had been provided for, and arranged beforehand. 
I saw two other battalions entrain; there being a few points of 
difference, but no confusion. 

SWISS ARMY. 

To the unpracticed eye, accustomed only to see troo])s in parade 
and moving with the precision of the parade ground, the maneuvers 
of the Swiss Army may be misleading; but to the trained soldier, who 
can separate at a glance the essentials from the nonessentials, it is 
apparent that the soldier is a man who has received an excellent train- 
ing in field work, and while he may be far from perfect in many 
things, mostly because of the shortness of time at his disposal, there 
is notliing essential that has been omitted in the instruction required 
of him, so when the time arrives that his services are needed, his 
country has reason to believe this training will be sufficient to enable 
him to defend her intelligently and to the best ot his ability. 

A professional soldier may, of course, find much to criticize about ^ 
the niceties of military training; but there is a sometliing about this 
army which impresses him with its potential power, and makes it 
more to be dreaded than some regular military establishments which 
show more skill and precision in exercises, but do not possess the 
endurance, education, and wonderful patriotism which would endure 
anything. One short campaign or good skirmish would correct the 
few faults or deficiencies observed, and would make the Swiss Army 
a magnificent fighting machine. 

Any nation, however powerful, will pause before invading vSwitzer- ' 
land, for, combined to this preparedness, there is a Spartan patriotism 
and valor, inherited from ancestors who had no fear of death, and a 
love of country unsurpassed by any known people, and this army, or 
nation in arms, before being killed or annihilated by sheer force of 
numbers, will inflict terrible losses, as, while the Swiss believes in 
peace, and desires it above all else, liis good sense tells him this is 
best assured by preparedness at all times. 



124 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

THE SWISS MILITARY ORGANIZATION. 

[From report of Capt. T. B. Mott, Field Artillery, 1905.] 

In three days' time the Swiss Republic can mobilize a first line of 
200,000 perfectly equipped fighting men, most of whom are fair shots, 
and all of whom are accustomed to shooting the Army rifle. Behind 
this first line a reserve army of 300,000 men, part of whom have served 
their time in the active army and 50,000 of whom are always armed, 
can be formed in whole or in part as necessity demands. Switzerland 
has about 3 J million inhabitants; the military establishment costs 
3^early about 54 million dollars. 

How are these extraordinary results accomplished? 

In order to answer this question, the present paper will begin with 
an outline of the military organization, give a rapid sketch of the 
mihtary career of the average Swiss citizen and describe in some 
detail the Swiss shooting clubs and the Army target-practice system; 
finally the saUent points of special interest to us will be touched upon, 
while the appendix will furnish detailed information and statistics 
on aU these subjects. 

The strength of the field army, immediately ready for war, is about 
200,000 men. There are besides, 14,000 men assigned to the forti- 
fications. 

This force is divided into four army corps,* each one of which is 
organized as follows: 

Infantry: 2 divisions 4 brigades; 8 regiments, 24 battalions; 1 
mounted machine-gun company; 2 battaUons of carbineers (picked 
troops) ; 1 brigade of Landwehr or first reserves. 

Cavalry: 1 brigade; 2 regiments; 6 squadrons, forming corps 
Cavalry; 2^ companies of guides, 1 company attached to each infantry 
division, one-half company to corps headquarters (this leaves 2 com- 
panies of guides for escort of Army headquarters). 

Artillery: 3 regiments; 6 groups or battalions; 18 batteries, 72 
guns; of which 1 regiment to each infantry division as divisional 
Artillery and 1 regiment as corps Artillery, 

Engineers: 1 bridge train and 1 telegraph company as corps Engi- 
noore; 1 battaUon Engineers divided between the 2 divisions. 

Medical: 1 corf)S hospital; 2 division hospitals; 10 field hospitals. 

Also 1 ammunition column, 6 companies; 1 subsistence detach- 
ment and 2 companies of Army Service Corps. 

Strength: Officei-s, 1,123; men, 24,544; total, 25,667. Saddle 
horses, 1,755; draft horses, 3,106; carriages, 916.^ 

Every S\viss citizen between the ages of 17 and 50 years is liable 
to military service if required. 

The elite or active army is composed of all men who pass the 
physical and mental examinations and are received as recruits. It is 
considered a misfortune to be rejected; about 50 per cent of the men 
examined are accepted. Men serve in the eUte 12 years (Cavalry 10; 
when 33 years old they pass to the landwehr; when 45 to the land- 
sturm.) The last class also comprises for emergencies aU men not 
otherwise enrolled between the ages of 17 and 50. 

The troops consist of Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, 
sanitary and administration troops. 

• The divisional organization has replaced the corps organization. 
2 These figures are slightly altered by the new Artillery organization. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 125 

A battalion of Infantry consists of 25 officers and 732 men, 672 
muskets; two 2-horse ammunition carts and eight 2-horse baggage 
wagons. 

A battery of Field Artillery consists of 5 or 6 officers, 138 men, 
21 or 22 saddle horses, 106 draft horses (6 extra), 18 carriages in all; 
4 guns, 10 caissons, battery wagon, forge, 2 supply wagons. 

A company of Siege Artillery consists of 7 officers and 162 men. 

A company of Engineers (sappers) consists of 4 officers and 185 
men; (pontoniers) of 4 officers and 119 men; (railway pioneers) of 
3 officere and 77 men. 

A corps hospital consists of 35 officers, 221 men, 148 horses; a 
division hospital, 23 officers, 124 men, and 40 horses; a field hospital, 
for 200 sick, 7 officers and 30 men. 

The administrative troops of an army corps consist of 33 officers, 
361 men, 47 saddle horses, 96 wagons, 372 draft horees. 

There is also a battalion of bicycle troops, unattached in time of 
peace. 

The Federal Congress is the lawmaking body; the Federal Council 
elected by it is the executive authority. One of the members of tliis 
council is the head of what the Swiss call "the Military Department"; 
in other words, he is Secretary of War. 

The Federal Council appoints the following officials from among 
officers of the Army: A Chief of Infantry; a Cliief of Cavalry; a 
(^hief of Artillery; a Chief of Engineers; a C'hief of the General Staff; 
(wo chiefs of supply (1) of ordnance (2) of food, clothing wagons, 
( tc; a Chief Surgeon; a Chief Veterinary; a Chief Paymaster and 
Auditor; a Judge Advocate General; a director of powder manu- 
i acture (civil and military. State monopoly) ; a bureau of permanent 
fortifications; a director of the State horse establishment. 

MILITARY AUTHORITIES OF EACH CANTON. 

Each Canton, corresponding to our State, has a military department 
which has certain Well-defined functions ascribed to it by, and subject 
to the control of, the central authority. 

The cantonal military department assures the regional recruitment, 
appoints certain subaltern officers (of Infantry chiefly), issues the 
caU to arms, assures the clothing and equipment of troops in its 
territory, furnishes horses and collects the military tax. 

EDUCATION OF THE SOLDIER. 

In Switzerland universal education to the age of 15 is compulsory, 
and during this period simple gymnastic exercises under the direction 
of the schoolmaster are required of all pupils as a preparation for 
military service. The schoolmasters are prepared for this instruction 
in normal schools. 

But apart from this obligatory work there exist more or less 
everywhere what are called cadet corps, voluntary organizations 
composed of boys from 11 to 16 yeai-s, in which setting up and march- 
ing drills and some exercises in the manual of arms are given. Each 
corps adopts its own simple and inexpensive uniform, generally the 
same in each locality, and the State furnishes a light cadet musket 
and ammunition for target practice. The target practice generally 



126 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

takes place on Sunday. Moreover, one or more Army officere serve 
as instructors for each corps, and the State gives a subvention to 
each of 5 francs per member whose shooting is reported upon favorably 
by the instructor. In 1904 there were — 

Number of corps 50 

Members cadet corps 6, 149 

Members whose shooting favorably reported upon 3, 133 

Total subvention by the State francs.. 15,665 

PREPARATORY MILITARY INSTRUCTION. 

Between the ages of 16 and 20 the Swiss boy may, if he chooses, 
become a member of a preparatory military organization, which 
operates on the same lines as the cadet corps, except that the Regular 
Arm}^ musket is furnished and the shootmg is more serious. It is 
laid down as a principle that in these organizations the chief attention 
must be given to gymnastics and shooting. It is not desired to 
turn out liaK-instructed recruits, but vigorous and agile youths. 
The State gives no subvention, but furnishes arms and ammunition. 
The drills generally take place late in summer afternoons, the shooting 
on Sundays. 

In 1904 there were — 

Number of organizations 20 

Number of members 6, 507 

THE CALL TO MILITARY DUTY. 

During his twentieth year, about midsummer, the young Swiss 
must present himself for miUt-iry service. Notice is put in the news- 
papers and posted on the to\Mi bulletin boards directing the young 
men of such and such a commune, locality, or ward to present 
themselves, usually at the mayor's ofllce, for physical examination. 
This examination is severe and only about one-half are accepted as 
fit for military service. In 1904, 15,969 recruits were accepted. 
There is at the same time a short but severe literary examination of 
each recruit on nonmiUtary subjects as a test of the instruction 
given him in the schools. He must know the three li's fairly well 
and understand the history and geography of Switzerland. If his 
knowledge is not sufTicient, he is made to attend evening school in 
his town till he reports for mihtary duty. 

The examination over, he is given his soldier's register, wherein 
is inscribed the first two acts of his mihtary existence — his present- 
ing himself and the result of the examination. He then goes home. 
The following spring or summer notice is sent out for men of such 
and such communes to report at the place d'armes, or training 
ground, of their district at such a date. There are eight of these 
training places; one for each Infantry division and located in the 
district from which the division is recruited. The Artillery, Cavalry, 
and Engineers have separate training grounds. Each training school 
comprises barracks, storehouses, rifle range, and training ground 
ample for a regiment of Infantry. 

The recruit is fitted out with a uniform and equipment complete 
in every particular for field service and given a rifle. These articles 
he takes home with him when he returns and keeps them until the 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 127 

end of his military service, at the age of 50. Wlienever he is called 
out, whether for war or a period of instruction, he has to present 
himself fully equipped; if anything is lacking he can be fined or 
imprisoned. 

EECRUIT SCHOOL, 

The mihtary instruction of the recruit now begins. One of the 
corps of permanent mihtary instructors, always a field officer (there 
are 200 of these officers and they are strictly professional soldiers), 
lit^s charge of the school, aided by a number of assistant instructors 
and also a detail of commissioned and noncommissioned officers of 
the Army. The recruits are divided into companies, sections, and 
squads and the instruction proceeds on hues similar to those obtain- 
ing at West Point when the fourth class is being broken in during 
camps. 

Before the recruits arrive the detail of officers and noncommis- 
sioned officers who form the cadre of the battahon are gi^en a week 
of instruction by the chief instructor and his assistants (professionals). 
The recruits arrive and their instruction proceeds as follows: School 
of the soldier, squad, and section about four and one-half weeks; 
school of the company, about one week; school of the battahon, 
about one week. 

The day consists regularly of eight hours' hard work, Sunday 
excepted. Besides the outdoor exercises the men are taught to keep 
their kit and arms, to cook, and are given some notions of hygiene, 
of the regulations and of the theory of shooting. 

TARGET PRACTICE. 

Each recruit is allowed 90 blank and 200 ball cartridges. Of the 
latter 15 are fired in preliminary practice, 80 in individual practice, 
and 105 in field war practice. 

As instruction gets on, company and battalion combat exercises 
are begun, longer marches are undertaken (up to 25 miles), and two 
nights passed in bivouac. 

At the close of the instruction each recruit receives in his book a 
note expressing an appreciation of his conduct and zeal. 

The commandant of the school gives his whole time to supervis- 
ing the instruction, aiding, advising, and correcting, encouraging 
initiative in the instruction detail and inspecting the results of their 
work. 

During this time the soldier is rationed, housed, etc., and receives 
10 cents a day pay. At the end of his 47 days of recruit training he 
is sent home, later is assigned to a battahon, and has no further 
military duty till the following year or the year succeeding that, 
when he is called out for 16 days' training with his regiment C'cours 
de repetition" in the French text). 

As before stated, there is one of these training schools or camps for 
each Infantry division. Three classes of recruits succeed each other 
at each camp during the summer. Each class consists of about 500 
men. These are divided into companies of about 100 men each for 
instruction and discipline while at the school. 

Thus, in 1904 there were 11,400 recruits received; there were 24 
school periods and 95 companies of recruits. It may as well be 



128 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

remarked here that each battaUon (800 men) receives roughly 100 
recruits each year and these men continue to serve in that battaUon 
for 12 years, doing 16 days' field training every 2 years. At the 
age of 45 he passes to the second reserve or hmdstrum, where he has 
no mihtory service except in case of war. 

So much for the unambitious private. But suppose the recruit 
we are considering is above the average and wants to become a non- 
commissioned officer or vn officer. At the close of his seven weeks of 
recruit tmining the instructor has noted him well as regards dis- 
cipline end intelligence. This note is put in his soldier's register 
and his name is forw^arded with others to the chief mihtary officer 
of the Canton as being material for a noncommissioned officer. 

SCHOOL FOR FORMING NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 

In this c;;se, next jev.r, when the noncommissioned officers' schools 
are organized, our recruit receives an order to attend. He can not 
ask for this order, but when received he must obey it unless excused 
by ^proper authority for reasons given. About 100 recruits will 
assemble at the division training camp, with a "cadre" of regular 
instructors and 10 or 12 of last year's corporals and sergeants. Dur- 
ing four weeks our recruit is put through ever}' exercise that can teach 
him his duties or determine his value; he commands a squad, a sec- 
tion, a platoon; he drills the other men and in turn is drilled by them; 
he is given all sorts of field training and target practice. 

At the end of the course, if the recruit has not utterly failed (very 
few are dropped, as careful selection is made in the first instance), he 
is made a corporal. 

The corporals, sergeants, etc., who attended this same course, form- 
ing the school cadre, are generally men selected as the best, and they 
usually go home after the four weeks' work promoted one grade. 

In 1904 there were 2,260 corporals graduated from these courses at 
the division training schools; only 50 aspirants failed. 

Our recruit now becomes a corporal, can aspire to a commission at 
once, second lieutenants being appointed indifferently from all non- 
commissioned officers. However, neither he nor any other noncom- 
missioned officer can go to the candidate-officers' school until he has 
spent seven weeks as corporal (or sergeant, etc.) at a recruit school 
and been favorably reported upon. Therefore we will suppose our 
corporal is ordered the following spring or the one succeeding to one of 
the recruit courses as a noncommissioned instructor or part of the 
cadre. His seven weeks have given him more experience and con- 
fidence; he does well, and goes home noted satisfactorily as to conduct 
and capacity. The permanent instructors at these recruit schools 
must pay special attention to this matter and make report through the 
chief mstructor and the division commander to the cantonal mihtaiy 
department as to these aspirant officers, and upon this report the man 
is left in the ranks or sent up to an officers' school. He may be recom- 
mended simply for sergeant. Sergeants are also made from corporals 
at the end of one of the training periods, or after maneuvers. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 129 

SCHOOLS FOR FORMING OFFICERS. 

Next year or the year following (depending upon how much military 
service he has recently done) our corporixl (or sergeant), having now 
gone through (a) a recruit course, 6 weeks; (b) a corporal's course, 4 
weeks; and (c) a recruit course as a member of the cadre, 6 weeks, may 
be ordered (or he may ask to be sent) to the school for forming officers. 
This school is held at ,the division training grounds, usually in the 
autumn when the recruit schools are finished. The course is 6 weeks 
and is chiefly theoretical, consisting of lectures, recitations, and exam- 
inations. At the end of the course those who are recommended for 
it are made second lieutenants and go home. In 1904, 339 men at- 
tended these schools and of them 4 failed to get a commission. The 
mihtary department this year again urged upon the Federal Assembly 
that the school course is too short to make officers out of noncom- 
missioned officers. 

With his commission the new second lieutenant receives his assign- 
ment to a company and a money indemnity sufficient to buy his 
officer's uniform and equipment, and he turns in his private's uniform 
and equipment. In principle all officers are furnished thsir uniforms 
and equipments at the cost of the State and it may be noted here that 
every Swiss officer carries an excellent Zeiss field glass. 

Within a year after getting his commission the second lieutenant 
must go through a lecruit course, doing his duty as lieutenant com- 
manding a platoon of recruits; he must also attend the shooting 
school for officers at Wallenstadt. His expenses on this, as on all 
similar duty, are paid. This mstruction may be postponed one or 
even two years by authority for urgent cause. 

In 1904, 331 second lieutenants attended the shooting school in 8 
series. Captains and field officers also attended to the number of 112. 

The infantry officer now has the privilege of going to the school of 
riding at Thoune for two courses, each of 2 months, at least a year 
apart. Here horses are provided and an intensive instruction of 6 
hours a day mounted takes place. 

A second lieutenant is promoted after from 4 to 7 years by seniority, 
but he must present certificates of capacity from the instructor of ms 
arm and his commanding officer. During his service as &"st lieutenant 
he must attend a central school 6 weeks' course — at one of the 
divisional traming places. He is here prepared for his duty as 
captain and if he does not prove himself capable he is not promoted. 

The course is chiefly theoretical, except for the lessons in equitation 
and staff rides. Tactics receives the most attention; lectures in law, 
administration, and hygiene are also given. The professional instruc- 
tors constitute the teaching body and the work is very severe. 

This work generally goes on in the winter; the barracks have plenty 
of furnished bedrooms and a good mess so that officers have to bring 
only their clothing. 

The first lieutenant must also serve with his company during two 
regular training periods (16 days each). If he is a promising officer, 
he is called out for a recruit course, 8 weeks as a capatin. This is 
considered as a candidate-captain's training. Having performed this 
duty satisfactoriljT' and received the certificates of capacity required 
from the chief instructor and his division commander (these men have 
had him under their notice and marked him for about 4 years at the 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 9 



130 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

central school, the traming periods, and the candidate-captain's 
course), he is promoted to captain. This is generally at the end of 4 
years as first heutenant and the new captain is from 27 to 32 years old. 

First lieutenants of inferior capacity are not promoted, but pass to 
the reserve at the end of their thirty-fourth year. 

A captain serves about 6 years before being promoted to major. 
He may, of course, not be promoted at all, in which case he passes to 
the reserve (landwehr) at the close of his thirty-eighth year. 

To be promoted to major a captain must have served a training 
period as such or a recruit course as company comm.ander and have 
passed successfully his second course at the central school. If recom- 
mended by his superiors, he may then find himseK a major when 
between 30 and 38 years old. 

A major must serve at least 2 years as such before being promoted, 
must have done a training period as major, and gone through the course 
at the central school for field officers (third attendance). 

Service of at least 2 years as lieutenant colonel is required before 
being promoted. 

The right to recommend for promotion to include grade of lieutenant 
colonel belongs to the officer under whose orders the man if promoted 
will serve. These recommendations go through official channels and 
receive the opinion of each superior to the division commander. The 
chief instructor issues the certificate if he considers it merited. 

The selections of commanders for brigades and regiments is made 
by a board which presents two names, one of which must be selected 
by the executive. The board is composed of (1 ) the Secretary of War, 
(2) the chief of the arm concerned, (3) the chief instructor of that 
arm, and (4) the commander of the division of which the regiment 
forms a part. The same principle presides in all arms and staff 
departments. 

The board to nominate a corps or division commander is composed 
of the Secretary of War, the 4 corps commanders, the 4 chiefs of arms, 
and the chief of staff. The general officer must be appointed from 
the two recommended by this board. 

Promotion usually takes place, of lieutenants, by squadron; of 
captains, by regiment; of field officers, by brigade. 

In general, throughout the Army, a vacancy of brigadier would be 
filled from the colonels in the brigade; of divisionnaire, from the 
brigadiers in the division; of corps commander, from the divisions of 
the corps. Tliis is a custom, but not a law. 

It must be borne in mind also that no enlisted man can aspire to 
become an officer who is not a graduate of one of the numerous high 
schools or colleges. I believe most of the officers are graduates of the 
University and have taken there the military course. 

The above chiefly concerns the Infantry, by far the most numerous 
and important arm in the Swiss service. The rules for training and 
for promotion are on the same general principle in the other arms, 
only in the Cavalry and Artillery the courses are much longer. In 
the Artillery the recruit course lasts 57 days instead of 47; to become 
a noncommissioned officer a further course of 5 weeks is necessary; 
to become an officer two more courses of 6 and 9 weeks. The Cav- 
alry recruits' course lasts 82 days; to become a corporal 47 more days 
are demanded, and for sergeant 21 days additional. Besides, every 
noncommissioned officer most go through a cadre course of 6 weeks. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 131 

The Cavalry soldier serves after his recruit year 12 days every year 
for 10 years. 

LANDWEHR SERVICE. 

The Infantry landwehr is divided into two "bans." The first, 
composed of men from 33 to 39 years old, is organized into regiments 
and brigades and may be called upon to take its place in the first 
line with the elite, or men in their first 12 years' service. The second 
"ban, " men from 40 to 44, form part of the second line, and furnishes 
troops for garrisoning fortresses, escorts for supply columns, etc. 

When a man reaches 45 he passes into the landsturm, which does 
no military service except in war emergency. It is inspected once 
a year. 

The landsturm is divided into the armed and unarmed. The 
former, about 50,000, is organized into regiments, etc., as a third 
Une; the latter, about 240,000 men, is divided into numerous detach- 
ments having special duties in time of war; such, for example, as 
pioneers for making earthworks, butchers, bakers, etc. 

All the Cavalry and Field Artillery belong to the active or elite 
army — men in their first-hne 10 or 12 years' service. Cavalrymen 
pass to the reserve or landwehr after 10 years, but as their horses are 
by then 15 years old not much account is taken of this force except 
as concerns the men. 

Artillerymen passing from field batteries into the landwehr man 
the ammunition train of Infantry and Artillery. 

To illustrate the march of promotion or retirement from service 
and transfer from first to second or second to third lines of defense 
(1, elite; 2, landwehr; 3, landsturm), let us take the year 1904. 

Transferred from active army to landwehr: All captains born in 
1866; first and second lieutenants born in 1870; roughly speaking, 
all noncommissioned officers and soldiers born in 1872. 

Transferred from landwehr to landsturm: All captains and lieuten- 
ants born in 1856; all field officers aged 48 who request it; all non- 
commissioned officers and men born in 1854. 

Liberated from the landsturm, i. e., from military service: Officers 
born in 1849 except those who ask to stay; noncommissioned officers 
and men born in 1854. 

The following round figures give the average assignment during the 
10 vears from 1895 to 1904 to the various arms. Total recruits per 
year, 17,100. 

Infantry 13, 000 

Cavalry 570 

Field Artillery 1, 060 

Mountain Artillery 100 

Position Artillery 200 

Train 500 

Endneers 600 

Fortress troops 400 

Sanitary Corps 530 

Army Ser\ ice Corps 140 



132 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

In 1914 the Arm}'^ effectives were: 



staff 

Infantry 

Artillery 

Cavalry 

Engineers 

Sanitary Corps 

Administration troops. 
Bicycle troops 



Elite. 



Total. 



1,923 

114, 271 

17,461 
5,107 
5,763 
1,919 
1,414 



147,861 



Landwehr. 



1 First ban. 



Total landsturm, 294,388. 



353 

1 40, 797 

2 23, 454 
12,862 

3,797 

4,483 

1,877 

837 

109 



88,569 



THE CAVALRY SOLDIER. 

. The various "schools" or "courses"- for the Cavahy go on in the 
different training stations all the year round. Each Cavalry soldier 
is called out every year for at least 12 days training and this during 
10 years. Let us suppose a boy wants to become an officer, and as 
his time of service approaches his family consents to this ambition. 
To show the system, we will carry him through the various "courses." 

In April, say, he is called for his first or recruit service; 90 days of 
very strenuous existence comparable only to that of a fourth class- 
man in camp at West Point, school of tlie soldier, foot and mounted, 
target practice, school of the S(|uad and platoon, field exercises in the 
open country, school of the squadron (our troop) and a few long 
marches. 

If our recruit is well "noted" he is later sent to a school of candi- 
date corporals, 42 days of unremitting work. The aspirants act as 
instructors and drill each other in turn, whether for individual in- 
struction or exercises of the squadron or platoon. A lieutenant super- 
vises each squad or platoon. A lieutenant supervises each squad 
(see below) and a professional instructor the whole. Drill mounted 
and on foot, target practice and field maneuvers on a small scale. 

Our candidate corporal, if well noted at the end of the 42 days, is 
made a corporal or assigned to a squadron. He must then do 12 days 
of the regular annual training as corporal in his own squadron. 

Some time after this, his service being satisfactory, he is sent to 
a candidate-officers' course. Here he passes 60 days of theoretical 
and practical work under regular permanent instructors. After 
passmg his examination the young lieutenant is sent at once for a 
"recruit course" where he puts in 90 days as instructor and super- 
visor to the candi.'ate corporals as described above, besides being 
instructed himself by the Idghcr officers in his duties as lieutenant. 
This course is almost entirely practical. 

This over, the lieutenant is sent to one of the "officers' courses" 
(Ecole Centrale) at Thoune, where he passes 42 days chiefly in 
theoretical instruction under the best instructors in the Army. 

Tliis fmishes liis obligatory instruction and thereafter he has only 
his regular yearly training to do. 

Before becommg a first lieutenant (say, in 6 to 8 years) he must 
put in 42 days again in a candidate corporal's course as instructor; 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 133 

before becoming a captain he must attend a recruit coui-se 90 days 
as captain instructor, a noncommissioned officers' course as instructor 
42 days, and do two periods of regular traiuing witii iiis troop. 

Promotion to first lieutenant is by strict seniority; after that by 
strict selection. Tne cantonal military authority appoints captains, 
the central authority all higiier officers; but no ollicer can be pro- 
moted unless recommended by his immediate and next higher chiefs. 

Tne rules for promotion cited above for the Infantry obtain, in 
general, for the other arms, and will not again be referred to. 

In practice, young men who aspire to become officers generally put 
in all of the above courses in their fu'st year, and by addition it will 
be seen that 336 days are passed in obligatory and most arduous 
training before one can become a second lieutenant. Sometimes the 
work is spread over 2 years, but both the candidates and the head 
instructors prefer to have the man put in 1 year of military service 
and get his commission. 

In watcliing the various courses I was greatly struck by the in- 
tense interest and earnestness of purpose which marks the bearing 
not only of officers and candidate officers, but of candidate corporals 
and even recruits. Tnere is a total absence of any spirit of shirking 
or trifling. 

FORTRESS ARTILLERY. 

There are only two "fortresses," St. Gothard and St. Maurice, each 
being really a region of passes with several disthict fortifications. 
To the first region are assigned two "divisions" of fortress Artillery, 
in all 8 companies, plus 2 machine-gun companies, each company 
having either 6 or 8 guns, and a sapper company. 

To the St. Maurice forts are assigned 3 companies of Artillery and 
a company of machine guns (12 pieces) and a sapper company. 

Tne armament of the fortress troops is mainly the machine gun 
and the carbine. 

These organizations were created eight years ago to man the 
mountain defenses of St. Gothard and St. Maurice. The men come 
from the territory immediately around these places and all their 
military training is carried out in the immediate neigbborhood of the 
forts. In winter the forts have small permanent detachments of 
caretakers. 

The question naturally arises, why have the Swiss defended these 
two passes and left the whole of their frontier to the northeast and 
west open? A distinguished officer to whom I put this question 
answered with a smile that it was doubtless because the Italian 
frontier could be so readily and cheaply defended and it sounded 
well to make a start in creating frontier defenses. To pretend to 
fortify the French, German, or even the Austrian frontier would 
require an immense outlay. 

It may, moreover, be remarked that most likely the Swiss chiefly 
fear a violation of their neutrality by the Germans. If the Triple 
Alliance were at war and such violation took place, the Swiss have 
made their backs safe from invasion via Italy, the French frontier 
under these circumstances would need no defense and the whole fleld 
army would be free to defend the German frontier and tlie small strip 
assailable from Austria. 



134 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

THE GENERAL STAFF. 

The General Staff is organized on the lines of the German genera 
staff. It consists briefly of: OlFicers of tlie general staff; adjutant or 
assistants detailed from troop officers; officers of special arms or serv- 
ice ; secretaries or clerks. 

The Chief of the Army General Staff has under his orders an 
organization divided as follows: (1) Staff section; operations, cor- 
respondence, post and telegraph. (2) Section of roads and rail- 
ways, forwarding of supplies. (3) Adjutant General's Department, 
reports, police, headquarter troops, guard, and police. (4) Chief 
of Artillery. (5) Chief of Engineers. (6) Surgeon General. (7) 
Chief Veterinary. (8) Judge Advocate General. (9) Chief Com- 
missary — pay, clothing, equipment, lodging. 

Corps and division staffs are organized on the same Unes. 

There is a General Staff school for forming officers who desire to 
enter that seivice. 

The first course is for lieutenants and captains, lasts 70 days, and 
includes a staff ride. 

The second is for captains and majors who have formerly pursued 
the first course successfully, and lasts 42 days, and includes a staff 
ride. 

General Staff officers are called out six at a time to each territorial 
subdivision headquarters to do the work of those headquarters. 

THE CORPS OF INSTRUCTORS. 

The permanent personnel of the Swiss Army consists of 200 officers 
known as ''instructors" of the first, second, and third classes. They 
are generally selected when young and advanced in rank till the high- 
est grade is reached about the age of 40. They may or may not be 
assigned to command of a unit —regiment, brigade, army corps, etc. 
Not more than one-fourth, however, mav be so assigned. This is 
done to prevent the professional officers from getting all the higher 
commands, to the discouragement of the nonprofessional or militia 
officers proper. The instructor, therefore, does not take the place 
of the commander of a unit but is his adviser. 

A lieutenant having passed vnth credit through all the courses 
for his grade (as recruit, as candidate-corporal, as corporal in a 
recruit course, as sergeant in, say, division maneuvers, as candidate 
officer, shooting school of Wallenstadt as officer, recruit school as 
officer, one or two regular training courses of his regiment), may 
make application for the post of instructor, meaning thereby to 
embrace the army as his sole and permanent profession. 

By this time he is well known to his superiors, and if they, espe- 
cially his immediate instructors, commend him, he is appointed a 
candidate-instructor and is assigned to the arm he asks for and 
given station at a training camp. (An officer seeking the post of 
instructor must almost always be a university graduate and espe- 
cially must have taken the mihtary course at the Ecole Polytech- 
nique of Zurich; he must be of good, respectable family — generally 
he has some httle income of his own.) Here he works under the 
head instructor in the various courses, teaching recruits, noncom- 
missioned officers, forming officers, etc. He spends practically the 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



135 



whole of his time all the year round out of doors with the various 
classes undergoing instruction, aiding, advising, correcting, and 
noting. 

Upon the excellence of his work depends his promotion, which is 
strictly by selection on the recommendation of his superiors. Some 
instructors never get beyond third or second class. 

Instructors are assigned from time to time to command regiments, 
divisions, etc., for their own instruction, but their chief work is at 
the various ''schools" where they form the cadres of the Army. 
During the autumn maneuvers they have no part, unless as umpires. 
They meet once a year and make recommendations to the chiefs of 
each arm, to whom they are responsible. They thus keep the in- 
struction throughout the Army uniform. 

Whenever these officers reach an age when they are no longer 
active enough to be useful they are simply put out; no pension or 
pay whatever is given them. 

Promotion, as explained before, above the grade of second lieu- 
tenant is strictly by selection in the Swiss Army, and the result of 
this system is seen in the youthfulness of the higher grades — lieu- 
tenant colonels of 35, brigade and division commanders of 45, chiefs 
of arm under 50, etc. I have seen but one Swiss officer who seemed 
what we would call "an old man." 

The law absolutely restricts this selection to those officers recom- 
mended by their superiors. The political power appoints, but may 
not appoint anyone unless recommended by his chiefs. The can- 
tonal political authorities appoint up to major in the Infantry and 
captain in the Cavalry; the central authorities to all higher grades. 

I am told there is the play of influence inevitable in republics as 
well as monarchies, but it is never flagrant, and if some good men 
are passed over, a bad one is rarely chosen, and never twice. 

PAT, PENSIONS, AND INSURANCE. 

During periods of training officers and men are paid what is con, 
sidered sufficient to cover expenses. It is not payment for services- 
properly speaking, but reimbursement of expenses only. 

The following is the pay table : 



Active 


Instruction 


service. 


service. 


S6.00 


$3.40 


5.00 


3.40 


4.00 


3.40 


2.40 


2.00 


2.00 


1.60 


1.40 


1.00 


.40 


.40 


.30 


.30 


.16 


.16 


.10 


.10 



Major general 

Brigadier general. . 

Colonel 

Major 

Captain 

Second lientenant. 
Sergeant, mounted 

Sergeant, foot 

Private 

Recruit 



Every officer as well as every soldier receives a lation. An officer 
is allowed on instruction service 80 cents a day for foraging his horse. 
Horses are, in principle, furnished mounted officers in kind or by 
indemnity. Officers receive quarters in camp or garrison and trav- 
eling expenses on duty. 



136 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The ration is H pounds bread, two-thirds pound meat, and one- 
half pound vegetables. 

There is an invahd pension law on familiar lines which grants pen- 
sions to families of deceased or invalided soldiers varying from 1 130 
to S20 a year. 

Besides this the State insures every soldier against accidents during 
his peace training. This was formerly done by contract with insur- 
ance companies; the State now runs its own insurance office. 

Unlike inost countries, Switzerland taxes the present to pay for 
future wars. For half a centurj^ she has been accumulating a fund 
to pay the pensions resulting from any future war. This sum now 
amounts to $3,700,000. 

USE OF PKIVATE LANDS FOR FIELD TRAINING. 

In Switzerland, as in nearly every other country except the United 
States, the law permits the Army during any of its work to maneuver 
over the fields of an}" citizen, all damages being paid for. This 
authority is used with great discretion and the damages are small. 
All field work is much mor^ usefully done across country than on a 
government reserve, and except for target practice and some cavalry 
and field artillery exercises the Swiss do not even desire a drill ground ; 
their marching is done on the roads, their drill across the fields. Even 
for combat firing exercises of battalions and regiments a rough coun- 
try is selected; the roads blocked, notices posted, danger flags hoisted, 
and the firing begins. 

England has a similar law, the text of which was sent with my 
report on the English maneuvers for 1903. The English and the 
Swiss are probably more jealous of individual and property rights 
than are any people in the world, ])ut they have cheerfull}'- acceded 
to the inexorable necessities of modern military training. 

MILITARY TAX. 

Every Swiss citizen, at hom^ or abroad, between the ages of 20 and 
44, who is not enrolled in the active or reserve armies, is obliged to 
pay a military tax. Between the ages of 32 and 44 the tax is one-half. 

Therefore all men (about 50 per cent) who are not accepted as 
recruits and all who for any reason whatever are excused from mili- 
tary service pay the tax. The tax is of three kinds: (1) Mihtary 
poll tax of 6 francs; (2) military property tax of 0.15 per cent of 
assessed value of property (property under $200 not taxed) ; (3) 
military income tax of 1.5 per cent on income. 

The total military tax paid by any one person can not exceed $600. 

The assessments are rigorously made and every penny exacted. 

This tax is in addition to other taxes. 

COST OF A SWISS SOLDIER. 

Leaving out cost of rearmament, the budget of the Confederation 
for 1901 was 28,713,600 francs. The budgets of the separate States 
of the Confederation or Cantons can not be given exactly. An 
expert estimates it at from 3 to 5 millions per annum for all Cantons, 
say. 5,000,000 francs. Total for support of Army, 33,713,600 francs. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 137 

Assuming the expenditure to be roughly 35,000,000 francs, or 
$7,000,000, the cost of each soldier of the 200,000 in the first hne 
(which can be instantly mobilized) amounts to $35 a year. The 
second line costs nothing. 

The annual appropriations for our Army show that each regular 
American soldier costs 28 times as much as his Swiss comrade. 

To compare the availability of the two forces for war is not so j 
easy as to compare the cost, though our force of Regulars and ' 
Organized Militia taken together has about the strength of the 
Swiss active or 61ite army. 

Switzerland can mobolize an army corps in three days, ready in 
every particular of organization, equipment, munitions, and transport, 
to march against the enemy; they can mobilize four such corps at 
one and the same time. Just how many days it would require to 
concentrate in one place 30,000 of our Regulars with all their baggage 
and transport, or how long to assemble four such commands of 
Regulars and militia, it is diflicult to say, but probably it would be 
nearer three weeks than three days. 

Comparisons may be odious, but v,^hen to maintain 1,000 men/ 
costs 28 times as much in one country as in another the relative \ 
readiness for war of the two forces is worth examining. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ARMY. 

It is impossible to spend several weeks, as I have done, in daily 
contact with detachments of the Swiss Army engaged in their ordi- 
nary daily routine without receiving a lasting impression of the 
willingness and devotion of the men and the zeal and capacity of 
the officers. The term "militia army" has given the world a mis- 
taken idea of the effectiveness and readiness of this force, which I 
think can not be judged by the militia standards of either America 
or England. "Semipermanent army" would be a more correct term 
in view of the severe exactions of service, the length of time devoted 
to field training, and the military education of the officers. 

The progress of training of the Swiss Militia is exactly the reverse 
in theory and fact of that in operation with our militia. Good per- 
formance in the field being the whole end and object of military i 
instruction and the time being short, the Swiss begin, and we may ) 
say end, their teaching in the open country. -^ 

After a thorough course in the school of the soldier and squad, 
work out in the open fields is begun and the recruit comes face to 
face with the primitive problems of a campaign and learns at the very 
start "what he is there for." He is taught to march correctly in 
column, form line and march in line, but these exercises are made 
an incident of going to and coming from "work." The real business 
of his life, he learns, is to march steadily under a heavy pack, shoot 
straight, take cover, and obey his squad leader. The candidate- 
officers' and junior officers' chief thought is to do outpost and patrol 
duty effectively, to read the map correctly, to post their men advan- 
tageously, and to solve on the ground minor tactical problems. They 
are questioned and noted on these points and they realize that their 
advancement depends upon the intelligence they show in the presence 
of actual though elementary military facts. 



138 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

After three weeks thus spent the recruit puts m a week at battaUon 
exercises with longer marches and two nights in bivouac with outpost 
duty at night, followed by exercises all the forenoon and a march 
home in the evening. The fifth and sixth weeks entire are spent on 
a long march in rough country, where the battalion acts for the most 
part as if in the presence of an enemy, maneuvering by day, establishing 
outposts at night, and conducting combat exercises with ball car- 
tridge (90 per man). 

The contrast between this sort of militia training and that seen in 
America or England is most marked. The psychological effect on the 
men is certainly unportant. The first conceptions of the real business 
of a soldier, his whole reason for existence, are apt to produce a lasting 
impression on a young man. In our service the recruit's first enthu- 
siasms are concentrated (and dissipated) in the grind of barrack-yard 
drill, where no man need or is expected to use his head. As these 
same recruits, whether fourth-class cadets or regular enlisted men, 
grow old m the service and in turn have to instruct others, the ideas 
crystallized in them durmg their first training prevail, and instinct- 
ively they give importance to the things which have been most deeply 
impressed U]ion them — judge of regiments by close-order performances 
and seek to have their own excel in a similar way, while work in the 
open, amongst farmhouses, villages, fields and woods, seems a thing 
C[uite apart, an occasional occurrence in no way intimately bound up 
in a soldier's. routine. existence. 

In Switzerland there are no parades or reviews or driUs beyond the 
company or battalion. These things would doul)tless be done in 
some measure if there existed a ])ermanent army, but they would 
always come last and be least thought of, because through the push 
of stern necessity the Swiss has sifted out the absolute essentials to 
fitness for war, and these essentials, field exercises and good shooting, 
he works at to the exclusion of everything else. 

To show the way the Swiss maj) out a day's work I will give a short 
account of 24 hours I s])ent with a class of recruits and a cadre school. 
The morning exercises went on as usual. At 2 ]^. m. the senior 
Cavalry instructor (commanding a brigade) assembled the 20 or 30 
lieutenants who were present as assistants in a course for candidate 
corporals. The same was done for the Infantry (a recruit course 
was on). The candidates made u]) the troopers of two squadrons, 
the young officers commanding. In the lecture room of the barracks 
the theme was given out and the assignments made, the brigadier 
explaining first in German and then in French what it was proposed 
to do and gave his ideas. The officers took notes with maps in front of 
them. Two assistant instructors, captains, were present. They 
then mounted and took their squadrons some 6 miles out and posted 
them, covering a debarkation in rear and feeling for an enemy 
expected from the north. This constituted the left of the line. The 
rignt was made up of the battalion of infantry recruits (they had 
been under instruction three weeks). The enemy was composed of 
four bicycle companies ordered from another garrison to move toward 
Berne. 

About 6 p. m. I rode out with the brigade commander who inspected 
the posts. I was greatly struck with his painstaking way of question- 
ing not only each chief of post but most of the privates. What will 
you do in such and such a case? Where is the next post? Who 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 139 

commands it ? Where does this road lead to ? Where is the captain 
to be found? Most of the replies were intelligent and showed that 
during the afternoon the young officers had gone over the case with 
every man. Each soldier had a good map. We got supper at 9 
o'clock and had a little sleep. At 2.30 a. m. we started out to make the 
rounds. In front of each post the sentries, well hidden, were on the 
alert, and upon being ordered to fire a shot the post came out at once. 
At daybreak the squadrons Avere imited and then patrols sent on the 
various roads to look for the enemy, push him back, and see what was 
behind. By 7 o'clock the maneuver was over. 

The young officers were then united and the chief instructor criti- 
cized, in a lucid and interesting talk, the little operation, the mistakes 
each man had made, what was done right, etc., etc. The cavalry 
then rode home and after lunch went to work as though they had 
spent the night in bed. The infantry (recruits) marched directly to 
the skirmish range and had skirmish firing till noon, then marched to 
barracks 4 miles for a few hours' rest before resuming afternoon 
drills. 

Now these recruits had been out since 2 p. m. the day before, had 
supped on a cake of compressed soup and a piece of bread (I exam- 
ined their rations) ; they were on outpost all night and had precious 
little sleep; by 4 a. m. they were out maneuvering after breakfast 
composed of a piece of bread and a glass of milk (we all had the 
same); the maneuver over at 8, they put in 4 hours marching and 
target practice; then in the late afternoon more drills. This schedule 
is, 1 believe, ty]3ical. I am much on my guard against programs pre- 
pared for foreign inspection; but after seeing a great deal of this 
Swiss training i can only say it is the most intense, the most fiercely 
practical work I have ever seen. The instructors do not spare them- 
selves and for them it is a continuous affair. One of the assistant 
instructors told me very seriously that except for a month's leave he 
could honestly say he had during the entire year just time enough 
each day to read the newspapers. 

The officers only get hold of these men for 6 or 8 weeks at a stretch, 
but they work them imceasingly all of that time. There is so much 
to learn, there is so much that is new every day, and over new ground, 
that the interest really does not flag. There is plenty of mental and 
physical fatigue, but there is no ennui. 

As another example of this intensive instruction, take the riding 
school at Thoune for Infantry officers, etc. There are 600 horses at 
this school and each one of these student officers puts in 6 hours a 
day on horseback. They actually ride a new horse every hour, 6 a 
day for 2 months. Of course no man can be made a good rider in 2 
months, not if he slept on a horse; but the horses are good, the 
instructors are good, and the spirit prompting the effort is magnificent. 

The day out with the Cavalry gave me a chance to notice how the ^'^ 
capital mounts I had seen being trained at the depot looked after a i 
few years in the service, rather out of it. All the horses are branded 
with the year of sale to his rider, and I noticed many of three, five, 
and six years' service. Not one was in the least over in the knees; 
all were in perfect condition of flesh and muscle; some had gotten a 
little heavy; not a sore-back m^rk in the lot, and they galloped pretty 
well. I could not judge of their mouths, but none of them bothered 
at the bit and the good blood in them showed decidedly. Two of 



140 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

the instructors were mounted on perfect types of hunters, and both 
these men would be considered crack horsemen in any country. 
One had gone through the Itahan Cavahy School and had hunted 
much in Rome; the other had had two years at Saumur and, though 
a man of 50 and brigadier, had won four years ago the international 
long-distance ride — 200 miles in 37 hours. He stiU uses the horse. 

These things are here set down because I imagine that the words 
"Swiss Cavalry" do not generally convey to foreigners much idea of 
horsemanship or horses, but with such types of men having ample 
authority and devoting their whole time to instruction and 900 
blooded 4-year-olds poured into the Cavalry everj^ season, I think it 
will be seen that these eight small regiments are far from being militia 
Cavalry in the usual sense. 

I now venture to set down what seem to me the most useful points 
offered for our contemplation in the Swiss system of military 
education: 

1. Concentration of effort, mental and physical, upon a given line 
of work during short periods, everything else being for the time 
dropped. Four, five, or six hours a day are devoted to one kind of 
instruction, then something else taken up; four, six, or eight weeks of 
intense application to one class of subjects, then a rest or a change. 
Attention and effort is concentrated upon one thing at a time. 

2. Proving fitness before gaining promotion. Every man from 
private to general must serve a prol)ationary period in the grade to 
which he aspires before being appointed to that grade. Instruction 
in the duties of the higher grade is given by most competent instruc- 
tors and the man is actually tested in the practical performance of 
his new duties for 6 or 8 weeks before he is promoted. 

3. A system of promotion by selection and of retirement from 
active to reserve service insuring a body of regimental brigade and 
division commanders for the most part between 40 and 50 years old. 
The men having high responsibihties are in the prime of their physical 
and intellectual forces. 

4. Recruiting officers from the ranks. Promotion to second 
lieutenant from the ranks takes place only after 12 months of arduous 
work in the practical performance of a second lieutenant's military 
duties. As the candidate officers command each other in turn under 
severe and capable instructors, the best men are readily picked out. 
Mental examination is practically eliminated, a certificate from a 
good school ])eing sufficient proof of general education. The whole 
effort is bent to seeing if the candidate has the military qualities that 
make a good officer. 

5. The habit of having a criticism after every exercise. By this 
means all officers profit by every exercise in which perhaps only one 
was actively responsible, each is liable to question, each is made to 
think, and every problem is mentally solved by all present. It forms 
habits of mental decision and it enables the instructor to know at 
the end of a season which officers are capable and which merely 
superficial. Since the instructed as well as the teachers are called 
upon to make the criticism, it brings about habits of clear reasoning 
and clear expression or it proves after a time that both are lacking. 

6. Ground chosen for exercises. The Swiss have ample "parade 
grounds," but they almost never use them for anything but squad 
drill and gymnastics; ample riding halls, but they ride out of doors 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE, 141 

and across fields much of the time. The problems of war, however 
small, must be solved on the theater whore marching and fighting 
takes place; that is, over the everyday country made up of fields, 
roads, villages, paths, farms, woods, and streams. 

A man can not be tiiught billiards on a dining table, nor football 
in a gymnasium, nor hunting in a riding hall. He also can not be 
taught minor tactics on a military reservation, however large, and 
the Swiss do not attempt such impossible feats. — 

The Swiss farmer is the most independent and jealous person on 
the globe, but he has voluntarily yielded to supreme military neces- 
sity and voted to let troops maneuver over his lields; and he greatly 
enjoys getting a few francs for a little damage done to his fence or 
pasture. 

SWISS SHOOTING CLUBS AND MUSKETRY PRACTICE. 

The origin of the present Swiss shooting clubs and of target shoot- 
ing as a national sport is unquestionably to be found in the early law, 
which, long before the birth of the modern conception of the "nation 
in arms," decreed that every Swiss citizen must be ready to defend 
his country and, as an effective corollary to this law, provided that 
he should be given by the State a suitable musket and ammunition 
for learning its use. Even before this enactment a similar idea 
in the law which prohibited any citizen from taking to himself a 
wife until he furnished proof that he owned a musket and could use 
it. This la,w only disappeared some 50 years ago. 

The actual prevalence of target shooting as a pastime in country 
and town, the frequent and enormously attended shooting matches 
all over the Confederation, the existing laws for the encouragement 
of shooting, and many of the military customs and regulations are 
the outgrowth of these old habits and enactments. 

Upon the reorganization of her military system in 1874, creating a 
national instead of a cantonal or State militia, Switzerland wisely 
took advantage of these old customs, and while proclaiming anew 
that every citizen must be trained as a soldier, added that his arms, 
uniform, and equipment furnished by the State must be kept by him 
in his own home. Thus was confirmed if not created the means 
whereby the poorest peasant could practically own a modern $20 
rifle, receive some free ammunition, and get more on easy terms. 

The enthusiasms and peculiarities of youth were moreover remem- 
bered, and cadet corps ranging in age from 11 to 16 and preparatory 
military corps ranging in age from 16 to 20 were encouraged by law. 
The httle boys are supplied with a safe and serviceable light gun and 
the big ones with the regulation musket; Army officers teach them 
to drill and shoot and public ranges are given them to practice on. 

Any m,an who remembrrs how he felt at the idea of owning and 
shooting a rifle when he Avas between 14 and 18 years of age has little 
difficulty in appreciating the sound military policy which dictates this 
encouragement of youthful spirit in the direction of shooting by fur- 
nishing arms and ammunition, instructors, and ranges to boys at the 
age when their tastes aie b ing formed and when to poss'^ss a rifle is 
an unspeakable joy. The infl.uence is felt outside the active members 
of the boys' corps, which are by the nature of things mostly confined 
to towns and to boys whose parents are a little easy, and there can be 



142 THE SWISS SYSTEM OP NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

small doubt that the example of these proud youngsters goes far to 
shape the ambition and form the taste of those who for one reason or 
another are not members of a corps. 

We all know the effect produced upon a town or a school by the 
possession of a champion baseball or football team; every boy wants 
to play ball. Shooting clubs in Switzerland take the place of our 
baseball teams. 

In 1904 there were nearly 13,000 boys between 11 and 20 years 
belonging to these corps; omitting about 3,000 of the youngest all 
were reported as fair shots. Reckoning according to population, if 
this system existed in the United States there would be nearly 300,000 
boys instructed in drill and shooting, over 200,000 of whom would be 
fair shots with the army rifle. 

That target shooting is the great national sport in Switzerland is 
attested by the eternal crack of the rifle which assails one's ears in 
every part of that country, no less than by the evidence of statistics. 

In 1904 there were 3,656 shooting clubs under Federal control or 
encouras;ement, with a membership of 218,815. In 1902 the member- 
ship was 213,667; in 1898, 210,524; in 1894, 133,486. Thus the clubs 
are not only fully alive but are increasing in strength. The total 
population of Switzerland is only about 3^ millions. If shooting 
clubs existed in sinular proportion in the United States the member- 
ship would attain nearly 5 millions. 

A shooting club is formed voluntarily, adopts such statutes as it 
chooses, has its matches as it likes, and in general is a perfectly free 
and voluntary organization just as such a club would be in America. 
The influence of the Govertnnent is felt in three ways: 

First. Each commune in Switzerland (there are 3,241 communes with 
population varying from 50 to 115,000 each) is obliged by Federal law 
to maintain at public expense a safe and suitable target range of not 
less than 300 meters; on this range all legally organized shooting clubs 
of the commune have a right to shoot. Thus the club is at no expense 
for its range. 

Second." The Federal Government offers a substantial subsidy 
(maximuni of 4 francs p: r member) to each club whose members have 
done certain pr. scrib?d shooting in the year. 

Third. Any soldi;^r who, durijiir the year he is not called out for 
service, presents his target book proving that he has done the pre- 
scribed military target practice for the year with a club of which he 
is a member is excused from summons to a military range that year. 
Thus most soldiers, if meiely for their own interest, join clubs; for 
if they do not they are required to present themselves during the years 
they are not called out at the division target range and do three days' 
target practice. During these three days they are housed and fed, 
but receive no pay and no indemnity for time lost. 

This ruling applies to company officers and to all noncommissioned 
officers and "privates armed with the musket. The State pays for 
cartridges used by soidiers shooting their prescribed scores, but for 
no others. 

THE LAW FOR ENCOURAGEMENT OF SHOOTING. 

Any shooting club, having not less than 10 members, which complies 
with the conditions set forth in the law, may claim the State subsidy. 
The subsidy is paid the club, not the individual, and is determined in 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 143 

amount by executive decision each year when the year's firing pro- 
gram is announced; it shall not exceed 4 francs for each marksman. 
In 1904 the allotment was 1.50 francs (30 cents) for each marksman 
who qualified. 

Only the Army rifle and ammunition are recognized. 

Those clubs which, besides executing the official shooting program, 
conduct well performed tactical exercises and combat firing may be 
accorded a special subsidy by the military department. 

The military authorities of each Canton appoint shooting com- 
mittees of fiom three to sfven members to supervise the arrangements 
and the firing of the various clubs in the Canton. The president at 
least must be an officer of the elite (active) army. 

These committees examine the by-laws of each club and recommend 
the acceptance or rejection of the club as a candidate for subsidy. 
(For examples of these by-laws, see Appendices 1 and 2.) They see 
that the program is carried out and are present at some of the practice. 
Th'^y examine and forward with recommendatioQ the reports of the 
club as to the practice held. They report upon the condition of the 
ranges, etc. The expenses of the committees are paid by the State. 

In each divisional district the military depaitment appoints a field 
officer as inspector of target practice who places himself in communi- 
cation with the various committees in his district, assists if he chooses 
at th« shooting, and makes an annual report with recommendations to 
the War Department. 

Soldiers of the elite (i. e., in their first 12 years' service) must, if 
they join a club, be active members on exactly the same footing as the 
others. Each club sends its leport of target practice to the cantonal 
committee by the Ist of October which forwards it vise, d to the Chief 
of Intantry at Berne. 

Annual orders prescribe the number of shots, ranges and all other 
conditions to be fulfilled before a man qualifies. Each soldier of the 
active and landwehr forces who has no military service to perform in 
that year presents his target book, certified to by his club committee, 
to the officer commanding his section. The latter sends it to division 
headquarters. The entry is verified and the book returned to the 
owner. If he has fulfilled the conditions, he is not called on to go to a 
military range and do three days' shooting. 

The range in each commune must be good up to 300 meters ; if a com- 
mune has no 4C0 and 500 meter range it may unite with adjoining com- 
munes to construct one, but this range must not be over 4^ miles 
from the center of each commune interested. 

The target material, payment of markers, etc., is at the charge of 
the club. 

OFFICIAL PROGRAM OF FIRING FOR THE CLUBS. 

Each year the military department gets out its program for the 
season's shooting. It varies but little from year to year. For 1905 
the main provisions are as follows (see Appendix 4) : 

Obligatory program, i. e., the series of shots which must be desig- 
nated not less than three days for this firing unless aU the members 
can easily shoot the series in less time. The position and handling 
of the rifle must conform to the drill regulations. Only the Army 
musket and ammunition are allowed. 



144 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

1. Each man must fire 5 shots kneelmg at target A (in Appendix 12) 
at 300 meters and make 4 hits counting a total of 9 points. If he does 
not make this in the first 5 shots, he continues to fire up to but not 
more than 8 shots. To qualify, the 4 hits and 9 pomts musb be 
obtained in any 5 consecutive shots. 

2. Five consecutive shots prone at target A at 400 meters, making 
3 hits and 7 points with same conditions as above. 

3. Five consecutive shots standing at target A at 300 meters making 
3 hits and 6 points. 

4. Five consecutive shots prone at bust silhouette marked with 
circles at 300 meters making 4 hits and 8 points. 

Every member who has fired 8 shots in each of the 4 series above 
without qualifying, is considered nevertheless to have performed his 
obligatory shooting for the year. He is marked on the target book 
as " carried over" for the series he failed in. 

For every member of the club who has performed his obligatory 
shooting, whether he qualifies or not, the State ])ays the club (for 1905) 
1.. 50 francs (30 cents). 

Elective program. — This may be shot by each club or by several 
imited. 

1. Five shots kneeling at target B at 300 meters. (Appendix 12.) 

2. Five shots standing at target B at 300 meters. 

3. Magazine fire during 1 minute, kneeling, at target B at 300 
meters; 10 rounds at most (the magazine holds 10 rounds). 

Taking part in the elective program does not excuse from the 
obligatory performance; a man is not considered to have done his 
duty unless he has fired an obligatory program in the year. 

For each member who has shot the series above given, the club 
receives 1.50 francs. 

Pistol practice.- — In this the Federal subsidy is 3 francs per man, 
thus high in order to encourage the ])ractice which is not as prevalent 
as rifle shooting. The only persons whose shooting entitle their 
society to the subsidy are: (a) officers; (h) noncommissioned officers 
not armed with the musket but armed with the revolver and who own 
one; (c) })rivates who are equipped by the State with a revolver. 

The marksman must be a member of a shooting club, take part in 
two days' ])ractice at least and fire at least 60 shots at from 30 to 60 
meters. 

Clubs which, besides the fixed shooting program, execute combat 
exercises at unknown distances in a satisfactory way, get a special 
subvention according to the work they do and the funds available. 
Committees are ordered to aid the clubs in getting up these exercises 
and in carrying them on. A member of the cantonal committee must 
be present at and report upon these exercises. 

In all exercises the clubs have to furnish the markers. These men 
are really professionals, provided with regular references, who go 
from range to range in summer. They are very expert. 

The Federal law makes it a felony to announce or mark a false 
score. It is almost impossible to cheat on the large ranges, as I have 
been convinced. Cheating is rarely attempted, and the man caught 
trying it is dishonored for life. 

Each soldier must use his own Army rifle, or in any case that of his 
organization. A member of the committee must make an inspection 
of arms before and after each exercise. Clubs must provide target 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 145 

matprial of good quality and conforming to army regulations. The 
war department do?s not furnish targets; it docs furnish samples of 
them. Insp.^ctors of target practice furnish, when requested, plans 
of normal target ranges. Military members of clubs are insured 
against accident during their shooting practice by the Federal law. 
The report of practice on which the claim of subsidy is based must 
be accompanied by the register of members and the original score 
cards duly countersigned. 

In 1904 the number of clubs which sent in reports claiming the 
State subvention was 3,656. Total membership of these clubs, 
218, 815. Federal subsidies were paid them as follows: 

Francs. 
In the prescribed target practice 142,704 members qualified, at 1.50 francs 

each 214,056 

In the elective practice 71,758 members qualified, at 1.50 francs each 107, 637 

In the revolver practice 786 members qualified, at 3 francs each 2, 358 

In the combat exercises, squad or section at unknown distances, 49 clubs 

with 2,606 members qualified; these were allotted a total of 5, 170 

Total State subsidy, 1904 329, 221 

In 1904 the Swiss Army shot nearly 6,000,000 musket ball car- 
tridges; the shooting clubs shot over 21,000,000 baU cartridges for 
the Army musket. Statistics as to the consumption of cartridges 
for oth vT makes of rifle are not at hand, but it would appear to be 
certainly as great. 

The clubs are s If -supporting; the Canton gives them nothing, 
the commune furnishes the range. The expanses are very small. 
Some few of the largest clubs rent a room to transact regular business 
in, but none of th >m have more and most of them have their meetings 
in a cafe and have no ^'homo" except the range. The entrance fee 
is generally 2 or 3 francs, say, 50 cents, and the annual dues about 15 
cents. 

About one-half the clubs of each Canton are grouped into a can- 
tonal association of shooting clubs; there is also a national associa- 
tion combining these cantonal associations into a central society. 
Some clubs belong to no association. 

The cantonal associations are organized for the purpose of strength- 
ening the clubs in the Canton, encouraging shooting, organizing 
cantonal shooting match'^s, and seeing that the Canton is well repre- 
sented in the intercantonal and Federal match'^s. While spr-aking 
V f these matches, I beg attention to what seems the most character- 
istic feature of all Swiss shooting matches. All matches, whether 
among memb?rs of a club, between clubs, or between Cantons, are 
arranged so as to induce the greatest amount of shooting among the 
greatest numb r of individuals. In this respect the Swiss custom 
differs greatly from our own, and from the military point of view 
would seem superior. In our clubs the main interest seems to center 
in the s -lection and training of "the team" and the match is one in 
which only a few picked men do all the shooting. The rest of the men 
are mere sp::'ctators. In all Swiss matches as many men as possible 
shoot. At the Fribourg cantonal match the oth-^r day I saw 68 
targets, all going up and down just as fast as 98 professional markers 
could work them. During the four hours I hung about the firing 
point I never saw an idle target. This stream of shooters went in and 
out all day, from early morning until sundown, and for nine days in 

80656— S. Doc. 796, 63-3 10 



146 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

succession. On July 23, a rainy day, 50,700 rounds were fired at thescj 
68 targets; the day I was there the estimate was 60,000 rounds, but 
the official fi^urt s were not published when I left. 

This most useful result is obtained by the conditions of the various 
matches and th^ way the prizes are offered. This can best be under- 
stood by concrete illustrations. Take the match at Fribourg this 
week. The total prize money offered was 180,000 francs, divided 
into 18 categories. Take the first, the " Fribourg -Progres " prize. 
This prize in all amounted to 33,500 francs. The "entrance fee was 
15 francs for 5 consecutive shots. First prize, for the best 5 con- 
secutive shots, 300 francs; for the best 3 consecutive shots, second 
prize, 275 francs; last prize, 5 francs. It was especially provided 
that 60 per cent of the competitors would receive prizes. 

Take the ''Singine -Vitesse" cup, total value of prizes 8,000 francs; 
the winner got 150 francs; 60 per cent of the men entfring received 
prizes between 150 and 5 francs. In one of this year's district matches 
(a district is part of a Canton), selecting at random, we find the fol- 
lowing: Total money value of one competition, 1,000 francs; this 
divided into 50 prizes, first prize, 120 francs; tenth, 20 francs; 
twentieth, 10 francs; and so on. These cases are absolutely typical 
and there is no exception to the principle they illustrate, that is the 
effort made to induce a great many men to shoot rather than the 
development of a few crack shots. 

Exactly the same principle is followed in matches between teams 
representing clubs or representing Cantons. For example, in the 
match between clubs belonging to the association of Fribourg it was 
a condition that the team representing each club should be in pro- 
portion to its membership. A club of 15 to 20 members must send 
a team of 10; 40 to 50 members, 10 or 13; 100 members 17. It was 
provided that each team participating should get some sort of prize. 
The best individual scores were rewarded by wreaths of laurel, wreaths 
of oak, silver medals, and honorable mentions. These wreaths are 
very tastefuUy gotten up with ribbons bearing inscriptions, and the 
winners wear them home on their hats with visible pride. 

This match was for the musket at 300 meters. The target was 
divided into circles each counting so much. The total score made by 
a team was divided by the number making up the team to get the 
figure of merit. 

The national soceity. — The cantonal associations all belong to the 
national society, which performs an important function in repre- 
senting the shooting clubs in all dealings with the Government, proj- 
ets for legislation, changes of laws, etc. It organizes the national 
match every three years and the field practice competition between 
clubs in the intermediate years. Its annual report and by-laws con- 
tain a fund of valuable information concerning the shooting of the 
various cantons and clubs. In 1903, 1,675 clubs with a membership 
of 81,757 belonged to the national societj'', or, roughly, one-half of the 
clubs in Switzerland belonged. 

The national society insures aU its members against accident during 
any matches in which one of its clubs participates, and this without 
extra charge. The annual dues are 5 cents per member. The receipts 
and expenditures average about 30,000 francs a year. The society 
publishes a paper called the "Gazette des Carabiniers Suisses," and 
every club is required to subscribe for it. The society administers 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 147 

"The Swiss Marksmen's Museum" at Berne, an interesting and hand- 
some collection of weapons, books, souvenirs, installed on one whole 
floor of the Berne Historical Museum, 

The national match, or Tir Federal, comes off every three years, 
each year in a different Canton. The last match was in 1904. This 
Tir Federal has nothing characteristic about it except its size, the 
huge attendance and the big prizes (that is the large total sums) 
offered. I am told that what I saw at Fribourg is just about what 
one would see at a Tir Federal, and the Geneva papers state that the 
first day's shooting in this match was heavier than at the last national 
match. 

The comparison between a sectional match, a cantonal match, and 
a Federal match is the same as we see between a county horse show, 
a State show, and the national show. 

I shall therefore give a short description of the small clubs and 
matches and proceed in greater detail with the Fribourg cantonal 
match which I saw. The principle is the same in all of them, the 
difference one of size. 

Each commune must maintain a range, but as the communes vary 
in population from 50 to 100,000 the ranges vary also. Some ranges 
consist merely of a few sliding targets in a suitably arranged pit with 
a natural stop butt and a shed at the firing point. Other communes 
maintain several elaborate ranges, one of, say, 50 targets and 300 
meters, another less elaborate for 500 meters, and sometimes, also, a 
skirmish range for the combat exercises. The last is, however, 
unusual. 

Berne has a very good range, though it is only 300 meters. There 
are 50 targets for rifle and 8 for revolver. A very high, thick earth 
embankment surrounds the range on three sides; the fourth side is 
closed by a well-arranged brick building comprising a restaurant, 
cafe, rooms for the various committees, storeroom for cartridges, 
armorer's rooms, etc. 

Much of the material at Fribourg was already sold for another 
match in another Canton. Sometimes the lumber, etc., is hired. All 
the target material at Fribourg was hired from Vaucher & Bieler, 
Fleurier, Neuchatel. This firm does a big business in hirmg out large 
installations for matches as weU as in selling to permanent ranges. 

The by-laws of all clubs, even the smallest, prescribe that at the 
close of the shooting season, usuaUy the end of September, a club 
match will be held. The money, etc., offered as prizes vary with the 
membership, but every member is expected and generally does con- 
tribute from 5 francs up. This sum, along with what can be squeezed 
out of merchants, liquor and cigar dealers, etc., forms the "con- 
tributed fund." Then each man pays an entrance fee for each event 
competed for varying with its importance. 

Suppose there are five events: 

No. 1. Total prize money, 10 per cent of the contributed fund 
plus 50 per cent of the entrance fees for that event. First prize, 
1 per cent and a laurel wreath; second, 8 per cent; third, 6 per cent, 
etc.; 60 per cent of competitors receive prizes. 

No. 2. Total prize money, 30 per cent of the fund plus two-thirds 
entrance fees. First prize, 2 per cent and a laurel wreath; 50 per 
cent of the competitors receive prizes. 

No. 3. Total prize money, 5 per cent of the fund, etc. 



148 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The remainder of the contributed fund and entrance fees, say 20 
per cent, goes to running expenses, paying markers, scores, target 
material, etc. Each man brings his cartridges, but these are sold 
by the State below cost. I am assured that the Swiss Government 
loses nearly $200,000 a year by selling its cartridges below the cost 
of manufacture. 

The larger matches are conducted on exactly the same principles. 
For a cantonal match there will be CO or 70 targets; for a national 
match 150 to 200. As the distance (for all but pistol practice) is 
almost invariably 300 meters for all club matches, the targets are 
arranged in one row in one pit and the firing is from one long stand. 

A match proceeds as follows: A man comes to the stand and buys 
a target book and admission card (30 cents). All the rules of the 
match are printed in this book. He wants to enter for any match 
being shot that day. He buys stamps (specially made) to the 
amount of the entrance fee for that match (from 1 to 20 francs), 
which the stamp man afhxes in the book at the place indicated. He 
then goes to the armorer, who examines his gun to see that it is regu- 
lation in every particular, attaching a lead seal as a sign "passed." 
He then goes to one of the stalls marked with the name of the target 
and match he has entered for and puts his gun in the rack. This 
entitles him to shoot in the order of place thus indicate(l. Wlien 
the target is free, he hands his book to the scorer (an employee, one 
for each target), who sees that it is correctly stamped, inscribes the 
number of the target and the arm used. The scorer rings an electric 
bell, which sounds at the corresponding target in the pit, and the 
man begins his shootmg. As the value and place of the hits are 
signaled, 5, 4, 2, etc., the marker records on his "feuille de con- 
trole," or pit record, the same numbers he signals. The scorer calls 
out each shot and records it in the man's book. 

This recording is always done by means of indelible rubber stamps, 
of which a well-arranged little box is in each stall. When the num- 
ber of shots allowed has been fired, the marksman signs the leaf, 
as does the scorer, and presents the book to a secretary for record. 
If the particular match is fmished that day, he knows at its close 
whether he has a prize and of what value. Some of the prizes are 
for the best shots on a target divided into 100 circles; each bull's-eye 
is paid, say, 100 francs; for 90 points, 20 francs, etc.; this prize can 
be had at once, after the record from the pit is received. 

The pit record is kept with great care and serves to verify the 
scorer's book, as both records bear the number of the target and the 
hour and minute of shootmg. ]\Iarkers and scorers are shifted 
about irregularly, and cheating in a big match is weU-nigh impossible. 

The popular side of the Fribourg match inevitably suggested a 
big American camp meeting or temperance reunion. Large tents 
and sheds were erected for eating and drmking, special trains and 
onuiibuses ran to the grounds, people were out in hohday dress, and 
there were speeches and processions. 

In the Tir Federal, or national match, the financial part of the 
match is guaranteed by the Central Government. There is always 
a risk that the receipts will not equal the expenditures, and as a 
matter of fact in 1904 this was the case, and the Federal Government 
made good a deficit of 100,000 francs. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIOlSrAL DEFENSE. 149 

In the local matches the contributions are generally liberal. 
This year 50,000 francs were collected from the people of Fribourg 
for the match. The Canton of Fribourg guaranteed this match. 
In communal or district matches the communes interested guarantee 
the fund. 

In all these matches an outsider has to pay a small premium to 
shoot in a match of which his club is not one of the organizers. 

Advantages and disadvantages of matches. — The advantages are 
quite evident in that nearly the whole population interests itself 
in shooting and can shoot. Soldiers, keeping for 12 years their 
rifles at home, can take part in matches with no expense except 
entrance fees and cartridges, and they actually do a good deal of 
shooting. 

The objections are few. Among them are the practical restiction 
of all matches to one range, viz, 300 meters, and to one position, 
the kneeling; the evil attendant upon all such assemblages of the 
people, drinkhig and carousing and the spending of money during 
sometimes a whole week. 

The stands for club matches are all covered, so that the marksman 
is never in the rain or sun. This is made necessary by the desire 
to have all matches come off as advertised and especially in order 
that Sunday, the great day for shooting, may not be lost. The con- 
ditions are therefore not those for military shooting, either as to 
range or light. 

TARGETS (club MATCHES). 

In each match the targets and conditions are decided upon by 
the committee and every detail published in the program of the 
match. Tills gives the size of tlie bull's-eye and of the other circles 
and the value of each in points. 

Tiiere are three classes of targets generally recognized and used, 
and while tlie system of counting points may vary, tiie principle is 
the same: (1) The "Bonne" target, which is a meter in diameter 
divided into 100 circles valued from 100 to 1; (2) the "Tournante" 
target, which greatly resembles our Army A target in disposition and 
value of points; (3) the "Vitesse" target, which consists of 10 circles 
value from 10 to 1 points, and used for rapid fire, 10 shots in a 
series. 

A sample of each of these targets is appended, with a description of 
the marking system written on the face. 

Certain allowances are always made to marksmen using the Army 
rifle, as against those using the more accurate sporting rifle. 

It may be said here tliat the Swiss army rifle is an unusually 
accurate piece, especially at 300 to 500 meters — more accurate than 
military requirements demand. The reason for seeking this refine- 
ment, as one of tlie Army rifle experts explained to me, lies in the desire 
to encourage the whole population to use the Army rifle as against 
sporting rifles. Even as it is, the latter have several advantages for 
accurate work at 300 to 400 meters and one sees marksmen arrive 
on tlie range with two or three rifles. 

The sporting rifle, however, is mostly confined to the Swiss Martini. 
This arm is generally referred to in matches as the "carbine." This 
must be borne in mind in examining the conditions of matches as 
laid down in appendices. 



150 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Tiie Cavalry carbine is never used except in Cavalry instruction. 

It appears that about an average of 20 per cent of the Swiss Army 
are classed as "bon tireurs." The allowance of ammunition in the 
Swiss Army is about one-half what it is in ours; the men are under 
instruction only a few weeks of the year, and their target practice 
can not be conducted with the deliberation we are permitted. They 
shoot 200 shots as recruits in the midst of most intense and laborious 
instruction, at a time when most of them are physically and mentally 
tired. These conditions, as well as the dissimilarity of the ranges, 
targets, and positions, make a comparison most diflicuit. I venture, 
however, an opinion remforced by that of a Swiss ofhcer of great dis- 
tmction and capacity in shooting matters. It seems likely that an 
American soldier classed as marksman would have little difficulty 
in qualifying for the Swiss "bon tireur"; many a "bon tireur" would 
not qualify with us as marksman. An American sharpshooter 
shoald invariably ([ualify as "bon tireur," but a Swiss "bon tireur" 
would often find it difficult to cpialify as sharpshooter. 

However, the crack shots of Switzerland — those who, singly or in 
teams, seem to carry off all the prizes in Europe — come from the 
shooting clubs and not from tlie Army. 

(Artillery target practice is described under the heading "Field 
Artillery.") 

THE SHOOTING SCHOOL AT WALLENSTADT. 

Wallenstadt is the Infantry school of target practice. During 
eight mojiths of tlie year there is a succession of courses in Infantry 
target practice all designed for the instruction of the ofiicer in the 
conduct of fire in battle. Tiie enlisted men sent to the school are 
merely tlie implements used in this instruction of officers. The 
teaching of the troops is solely incidental. About 200 men are sent 
from time to time to serve this purpose. 

As explained in the subject of education of the officer, each second 
lieutenant witliin a year after getting l:is commission must attend 
a course at Wallenstadt. Tne course of 28 days is generally divided as 
follows: Subtracting 4 Sundays and 1 da}^ for hispection, etc., there 
remain 23 working chiys; work for officers alone, 88 hours — 11 days; 
work for officers witii troops, 96 hours 12 (lays; total working 
hours, 184. 

Of these, 58 hours are devoted to theoretical instruction and 126 
hours to practical work. 

The theoretical part comprises study of the arm and the theory of 
fire, tactics of fire, target practice reports and return of ammunition. 
The practical part is devoted to individual practice with rifle and 
pistol and combat practice, where the officers constitute firing pla- 
toons (56 hours) ; and to combat exercises where the officers command 
detachments of troops (70 hours). 

Each class consists of about 40 lieutenants. Captains and field offi- 
cers are also ordered up to repeat (the last) part of the course. Many 
apply to come. There arc frequently 10 or 12 captams and from 3 to 5 
field officers in each class. The captains attend only the last 12 days 
of the course. The practical work is the same for aU; the captains 
and field officers receive an advanced theoretical instruction in fire 
tactics. Some Cavalry officers ask to take the course. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 151 

All the permanent instructors of all arms go through the course 
from tmie to time. For lieutenants, Wallenstadt is a school; for 
higher officers it is a source of information. 

Each officer is allowed 60 rounds of revolver and 340 rounds of 
rifle ammunition; each man 250 rounds of rifle ammunition. 

TJie place and the ranges. — Wallenstadt is at the extremity of Wallen 
Lake (south of the Lake of Constance) in a narrow valley inclosed on 
each side by precipitous mountains. There are two skirmish ranges, 
one using the lake as a stop butt, the other using the mountain. Each 
is nearly 2,000 yards long. For the combat exercises, the fields and 
hilly grazing lands on each side of the lake are used, the projections 
of the mountain side serving as stop butts. 

The targets. — The regulation targets are of course used as prescribed. 
This especially applies to the individual practice of officers and the 
preliminary training of the men, who naturally arrive at Wallenstadt 
out of practice. The individual practice against regulation targets 
has no particular interest here as it has already been described." 
With the platoon firing the real instruction of the company officer 
begins. Before describing this and the combat firing I will give an 
idea of the targets used in the work. All targets of whatever descrip- 
tion used in combat exercises, fall on being hit. 

Stationary falling targets. — Head, bust and standing; all of thin 
pine board. Fall on being hit. These are arranged as skirmishers, 
sections, or columns. 

Moving disappearing targets. — A long framework of iron is mounted 
on metal runners so adjusted as not to be stopped by any ordinary 
inequalities of the ground or even by ditches. A wire rope leads to 
the power station passing over suitable pulleys. When the rope is 
slack, the targets lie horizontally, practically along the ground; 
when the rope is drawn taut and the sled begins to move forward, the 
iron bar in which the targets are inserted revolves 90° and the targets 
appear. The targets on the sled can be arranged so that when the 
sled is stationary, the targets are seen as men lying; when the sled 
advances the targets seen are men standing. The effect is startling, 
to see the crouching men suddenly stand up and advance. 

Falling disappearing targets. — Scattered irregularly along the de- 
pressions of the ground and hidden sometimes in shallow trenches 
are the disappearing targets common to all Swiss Army ranges. The 
principle is that of a simple crank arm revolving a long bar whose 
sockets bear the targets. By means of a winch and wire rope actu- 
ating the crank arms of the bar the latter is made to revolve 90°, rais- 
ing the whole row of targets vertical or dropping them horizontal 
and out of sight. Each separate target falls on being hit. 

There are a dozen of these rows of disappearing targets on the 
range, and all the winches actuating them are located in a little bullet- 
proof shelter in telephonic communication with the officer conduct- 
ing the exercises. 

A man is at each winch, and one or any number of the rows of 
targets may be made to rise or fall at will. 

Balloon targets. — These are either head or bust targets, and consist 
of cotton stuff treated with rubber so as to be air-tight. When in- 
flated, a narrow wooden strip serves as a base, and they are dropped 
on the ground anywhere. 



15-2 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

These targets have two advantoges: For corrj bat exercises on the 
mnrch they pre so light a company can carry along a great number 
of them without wagons; they also when, hit follow in a starthng 
manner the actions of a wounded enemy. Instead of dropping flat 
and out of sight when struck (as with the usual faUing target), the 
balloon target begins to slowly colla pse a nd finally sinks. This renders 
the observation of fire and the estimation of the distance more diffi- 
cult and more in accordance with what happens in battle, hence they 
think very highly of these targets at WaUenstadt for the training of 
officers in combat exercises on the march. 

With the falling target the officer estimates the range, fires a few 
shots, changes the sights, fires another series, and sees several targets 
fall. He knows at once that he has the range and can proceed with 
nipid fire to crush the enemy. With the balloon targets he is pre- 
sented with a more difficult problem, for when hit the targets do not 
at once disappear, any more than a wounded man disappears imme- 
diately from the firing line. 

The marJcers. — These men at WaUenstadt are all civilian employees, 
paid about SI a day, boarding and lodging themselves. They are 
exceedingly skillful from long practice, and know almost without 
being told, what to do. In the combat exercises they precede the 
troops into the hills, place the targets where they were shown or told 
to place them, and no thought need be given to their safety, as they 
are well used to taking care of themselves. They keep in order and 
repair all the material, working at this the da3's when there is little 
or no shooting. The officers speak in the highest terms of the use- 
fulness of these professional markers and target men. 

I wiU now describe the shooting ^^'hich I saw, touching only upon 
whait seems most useful to us. The officers a; re first given the indi- 
vidual practice set down on page 198 of Maj. Cecil's report. For this 
he is allowed 135 rounds. For revolver practice he is given 60 rounds. 
The officers are then formed into a pla.toon and practiced in collective 
and combat fire just as v.dll be described further on for the men. In 
this work 115 rounds are fired by each oftlcer. 

This work being over and the enUsted men having arrived, these 
are broken in by a series of driUs and firings (40 cartridges only per 
ma.n), and then the real instruction of the young officers in fire direc- 
tion and fire tactics begins. 

It must be remembered that the 200 enlisted men I saw shooting 
were not in any sense selected; they were simply a batch of soldiers 
called in for a period of training. They arrived at WaUenstadt the 
day I did, and it was their first miUtary service in two years. They 
were given some prefiminary practice, and then the real work under 
the student officers began. 

This arrangement is made intentionally. It is desired that what 
these officers do and see shall be under the strict conditions of v/ar, 
and the troops who serve to demonstrate the theories of fire are 
exactly such as these officers would command upon mobihzation, 
neither better nor worse. 

The combat exercises are almost invariably between 1,000 and 
600 meters. An occasional demonstration is made at longer ranges, 
but never at closer range than 4,500 meters. Most of the shooting 
is between 600 and 800 meters. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 153 

No volleys are used under any circumst;inces whatever in the Swiss 
Army. 

The officer commands the rano^e, orders sinf2;le cartridge or maga- 
zine fire, and commence firing. Each man fires lying, kneehng, with 
a rest if he can find one, or any other way that promises best and 
keeps it up till the command "cease firing" is heard. 

All the distances are unknown to both officers and men. Student 
officers and men never go on the range except to shoot, and never 
go up to where the targets are until the end of the term. Moreover, 
the shooting is in three directions across the ground, and the targets 
are placed in irregular lines, so that it is quite out of the question to 
know the ranges beforehand. 

The first exercise was a competition shoot between two platoons of 
44 men each. 



44 kneeling targets representing platoon B. 

nniiinniiniunii 
mill iiiiniiiiniii 

44 men shooting, platoon A. 



44 kneeling targets representing platoon A. 

iinniiiiiiiiiiniiii 
nnniiiiiiiiniinn 

44 men shooting, platoon B. 



The platoons were formed in column about 1,000 meters from the 
targets; a lieutenant, student officer, was selected to command each. 
All the other officers looked on, followed and took notes. A brief 
tactical idea was explained, the objective of each platoon indicated, 
and the men ordered to advance. On arriving at (what the instructor 
knew to be) 700 meters from the targets, the instructor ordered the 
lieutenants to open fire. B estimated the range betw^een 600 and 
800, opened fire at 600, saw no results, changed to 800, saw no results, 
and went to 900. Still getting no results, he dropped to 700, and the 
enemy began to fall. He kept this up till the order "cease firing." 
A estimated the range between 700 and 900, opened fire at 800; 
seeing no casualties, he changed to 700, and the enemy immediately 
began to drop. He commanded rapid fire, and by the time B had 
gotten the range, A had hit 30 per cent of his men. 

Officers with good glasses were stationed behind each platoon and 
whenever a target representing platoon B fell, the officer in rear of 
platoon B caused a man to stop firing and lie still; similarly when a 
target supposed to be platoon A fell, a man in that platoon was desig- 
nated to represent the casualty. 

The results of this shooting were visible and the casualties were 
counted with the glass. 

The instructor proceeded to criticize the action of lieutenants A 
and B, pointed out to the class the mistakes of each and the correct 
reasoning of each and indicated what experience proved to be the 
best way to proceed. The criticism was interspersed with questions 
to the two lieutenants ; why did you start with 600 ? Why did you 
then proceed to 800 ? Seeing no results, why did you go to 900 ? 

These 2 platoons were withdrawn some 2,000 yards to the rear 
and 2 other platoons were marched against targets lying in another 
direction. Two other lieutenants commanded. This was also a 
competition thus arranged : 



20 targets representing platoon B. 
IIIIIIIIIIII 

iiiiiiinniinniiiini 

60 men shooting, platoon A. 



60 targets representing platoon A. 

niiiiiiiniiiiiiniiii 
IIIIIIIIIIII 

20 men shooting, platoon B. 



154 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

Each officer was given 60 men and an objective. Each was 
allotted a total front of 60 meters for his deplojmient. A decided 
to put in all his men. B to put in only 20. The targets representing 
corresponding effectives rose up. Then open fire was ordered. 
Each lieutenant estimated his distance and began firing, changed 
and began again, as in the first example. The point was to see 
which platoon got a decided superiority of fire first. 

The criticism which followed gave the result of experience in the 
matter of thin and thick lines of skirmishers under various conditions 
of ground, the lieutenants were questioned as before and the stages 
of their reasoning commented upon. 

It is to be noted that in all the estimation of distances (and there 
is much practice in this work alone required of both officers and men) 
two limits are exacted. An officer says, "I think the range is 
between 400 and 500 meters," between 500 and 600, between 700 
and 900, 900 and 1,200, etc. This is to prevent guessing and to make 
the man really decide on the inferior and superior limit, as closely 
as possible, before opening fire. This at least gives him a working 
plan to which he is made to confomi as he goes on seeking the range; 
otherwise with a few bad results he may get "rattled" and order 
most extravagant ranges. 

During this instruction there were present the colonel commanding 
and 3 field officers, instructors; 3 captains, permanent instructors 
at the school; and 3 other captams detailed as instructors. 

The next exercise was a platoon firing and advancing against a 
row of skirmishers about 600 meters off while at the same time 
another platoon fired against a loose column descending a ravine to 
the left and rear. 

Then a platoon was detailed as support to move up to a skirmish 
line already engaged against an enemy in the hills. The supposed 
tactical situation was clearly explained to the lieutenant and he 
began his advance. Suddenly a line of skirmishers appeared to his 
left and at the foot of the hills. The platoon ran forw^ard to a shallow 
ditch, lay down, and the order was given to open fire at 600 meters. 
This seemed ineft'ective and the sights were raised to 800; no results 
appearing, the lieutenant lost his head and ordered 300. The real 
distance was 480 meters. 

The resulting criticism from the instructor bore upon first, the 
tactical problem (as is done in nearly every case) and its solution, 
then upon the conduct of the fire, showing all the officers how such 
situations should be met. 

I noticed that after the instructor's talk to the officers, the lieu- 
tenant who commanded returned to his platoon and explained to 
his men what had been done, what hits made, what errors committed 
in range, etc. The men take the liveliest interest in this explanation 
and it seems to teach them a good deal. 

Most of the ground advanced over was covered with tall and very 
wet grass; the surface inequahties and the rolling hills on everyside 
made the estimation of the range a fresh jiroblem in each advance. 
Almost invariably a short run precedes opening fire. The men are 
invariably in heavy marching order for the shooting. 

The next exercise was against an advancing line. Cartridges 
were distributed and the problem given out some 2,000 yards back. 
The line advanced, opened out, moved up at a run, and opened fire 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 155 

lying down. The enemy disapi^eared and about 20 seconds later 
reappeared closer up, though to the men lying it was most difficult 
to know whether these heads were reappearing in the same place or 
not, and even from my place to estimate the change of range was a 
hard ]>roblem. 

This kind of exercise shows the value of the sled target, though it 
was not used this day. With it, after a certain period of fire, the 
prone enemy is seen to rise up, move forward, and fall to the lying 
position. It is more real and the estimation of the new range more 
readily accomplished. 

As I have said before, all these targets mvariably fall and disappear 
when hit. 

An interesting practice sometimes given, but which did not occur 
during my visit, is a contest between a machine gun and a detach- 
ment of Infantry. A target representing a machine gun is fired at 
by, say, 40 men, while a target representing 40 men, distributed as 
ordered by the heutenant, is fired on by the gun. The arrangements 
are quite similar to those of the competitive shoot. 



iniiiiiiiinii 

(Target.) 

-I- 

(Gun.) 



-I- 

(Target.) 

ininniinni 

(Skirmishers.) 



Col. Schiessle told me that he found this a most interesting exer- 
cise. He said the machine gun nearly always got the best of the 
Infantry platoon; i. e., it got suj^eriority of fire much sooner. He 
said this result was accompHshed more readily when the Infantry 
were good shots than bad-. He had made the experiment with 
picked marksmen and then with just the average. The jicked men 
were always beaten more readily than the ordinary shots. This, of 
course, was due to the dispersion in the second case being so much 
greater than in the first, so that if the range were not accurately- 
estimated, the good shots had no chance. Whereas the gun invari- 
ably found the range more quickly than the Infantry. 

This same exercise is also held at night, using searchlights. They 
do a certain amount of night practice, using searchhghts at W^aUen- 
stadt — combat exercises only — at unknown and at known ranges, 
but none took place while I was there. 

The instructors told me they thought this work very useful and 
they hoped to have more of it. 

In all practice the markers, after each firing, count the hits, and the 
record is made out in the afternoon and forms the basis of a lecture 
by one of the instructors on the day's work. The lecord shows (1) 
the hits on any part of the target, (2) the hits in the head on each 
target, (3) the per cent of (1) anci (2) to shots fired; the estimated 
range used in each case and the true range. Appendix 19 shows 
the complete record of one ''school of fire" — 4 weeks — and can be 
examined for details described above. 

COMBAT SHOOTING IN THE MOUNTAINS. 

Two days of each course, and on certain occasions four days, are 
devoted to a march and combat exercise in the mountains near 
WaUenstadt. I was courteously invited to go on one of these marches. 



156 THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 

The command left bairacks at 5 a. m. and after 3 hours dimbing 
reached a small valley mostly closed with mountams on every side. 
The ])rofessional markers had jdaced balloon targets in places indi- 
cated and the instructors on nearing these places disposed the platoons 
somewhat after the manner described for the j-ange shooting. 

There are no roads and very few ]iaths in these distiicts. The 
troops march in single file, and when foiming for combat open out as 
shown in the sketch. Parallel columns marching off the paths 
generally move in echelon to avoid loose stones rolhng do^vn from 
the highest squads on to those on the hillside below. No regularity 
of formation is ],ossible nor is it attempted. The ground controls 
everything; the men march and shoot as best they can. 

Lieutenants were detailed to command smnll pl-toons as before 
described, marched their men f s in the presence of vn enemy, end 
when the latter wos discovered opened fire. The balloon targets 
alone were used; they were set more or less in the places which 
skirmishers would choose, and the rj'pid regulation of fire was not 
easy, for, as above said, the balloon targets when hit only collapse 
slowly. 

The various fire problems were illustrated, and the practice fol- 
lowed exact!}'' the lines described in detail iibove, with criticism follow- 
ing each exercise. Then the march was resumed until a new set of 
targets presented tht^mselves. It seems unnecessary to repeat here 
the descriptiim already given of the system which was similar to what 
had taken place in the plain with the added interest of the march; 
the rough nature of the ground, the patches of wood, intervening 
gulches and ravines, making the estimation of the range harder and 
giving much reality to the instruction. 

This ground worlced over does not betJuig to the state, but there 
are few inhabitants. Their houses are known and the shooting offers 
no danger to them. Such notice as is possible is given, but there are 
no roads and practically no passers by, and the officers re silly do not 
concern themselves much on the subject. The law permits troops to 
work over private fields in Switzerland, paying for all damage done. 

After each exercise, the balloon targets were gathered up and 
packed by the markers and some of the men. The work was natu- 
rally slow and nothing was done in a hurry. A short halt was made 
and sandwiches eaten, when work was resumed. The command 
reached barracks again 12 hours :-iter setting out. 

A part of the day at Wallenstadt is devoted to estimating distances, 
but this pra.ctice is chiefly had during other periods of instruction. 

The most striking feature of the school is the straightforward 
way they go about teaching what is to be learnt. The only way 
for a man to learn shooting is to shoot, as we all know; the Swiss 
think that the only way for an officer to learn how to direct fire is to 
direct it. Another useful point is the system by which 30 young 
officers all profit by the exercise directed in turn by each one 'imongst 
them. They all watch, mentally decide, take notes, and hear the 
criticism at the end. They get four or five hours of mental exercise 
in range finding and fire direction every day. 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



157 



LENGTH OF SERVICE IN THE SWISS ARMY. 

Table showing the comparative length of service under the law of 1874 and the late of 1907. 
[From report of Capt. S. J. Bayard Schindel, 1907.] 





Infantry. 


Cavalry. 


Artillery. 


Engineers. 




1874 


1907 


1874 


1907 


1874 


1907 


1874 


1907 


SERVICE AS A SOLDIER. 

Elite: 


47 
90 
12 


67 
91 
5 


82 

120 

10 


92 

104 

2 


57 

100 

12 


77 

112 

5 


52 
90 
12 


67 




91 


Inspection of arms and equipment 


5 






Total 


149 

14 
10 
6 


163 

13 

7 
8 


212 


198 


169 

16 
10 
6 


194 

13 

7 
8 


154 
14 


163 


Landwehr: 


13 




14 
6 


10 

8 


7 


Landsturm: Inspection of arms and equipment 


8 


'Potal 


179 


191 

-1-12 


232 


?16 
-16 


201 


222 
-f21 


184 


191 




-t-7 








AS NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 

EUte: 

As a private- 
Recruit school 


47 
28 

53 
90 
12 


67 
20 

67 
91 
5 


82 
42 

82 
120 
10 


92 
35 

92 

104 

2 


57 
35 

57 

100 

12 


77 
35 

77 

112 

5 


52 
28 

58 
90 
12 


67 




35 


As a corporaL— 

Recru it school 


67 


Repetition course 


91 




5 






Total 


230 


250 


336 


335 


261 


306 


240 


265 






Landwehr: 

Repetition course 


22 
10 
6 


13 

7 
8 

48 


1 20 


18 


f 16 
121 


13 

7 
8 

60 


22 
10 
6 


13 


Inspection of arms, etc 


7 




8 


New law, for sergeants, and above repetition course 




22 


48 








Total 


268 


326 


356 


375 


314 


394 


278 


341 






AS OFFICERS. 

Lieutenant. 

[Limits of ape: 1874— Elite, 34; landwehr, 44; land- 
sturm, 55. 1907— Elite, 32; landwehr, 40; land- 
, Sturm, 52.) 
Elite: 


47 
28 
18 
53 

42 

63 
28 
36 

72 


67 
20 
13 


82 
42 
12 


92 
35 
13 


57 
35 




77 
35 
16 


52 
28 

"'58' 
63 

58 
27 
72 

36 


67 


School of noncommissioned oflBcers 


35 




13 


Recruit school 




Officers school 


80 
67 


60 
82 


80 
92 


ios 

57 
14 
60 

60 


105 

77 
14 
96 

80 


105 


As lieutenant- 
Recruit school 


67 


Firinf course of patrols and technical course . . 


27 


65 

78 
14 


72 

84 


78 
39 


78 


As first lieutenant- 
Repetition course 


65 


Firing school 




















Total 


377 
42 


404 
30 


445 

42 
33 

42 

82 


440 

30 
33 

35 

92 


388 
42 


500 
30 


394 
42 


457 


Capain. 

[Limits of age: 1874— Elite, 38; landwehr, 44; land- 
sturm, 55. 1907— Ehte, 38; landwehr, 44; land- 
sturm, 52.] 

Before nomination: 

At central school as first lieutenant 


30 






Noncommissioned oflicers' school as first lieuten- 
ant 














Recruit school as first lieutenant in charge of a 
imit 


55 


67 


57 


77 


52 
40 

54 


67 


Technical course, 2X20 


40 


As captain; 

Repetition course 


36 


78 


48 


104 


60 


78 


76 






Total 


510 


579 


692 


734 


547 


685 


.582 


672 



' Special course. 



158 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 



Table shotving the comparative length of service under the law of 1874 and the law of 

1907— Continued. 





Infantry. 


Cavalry. 


Artillery. 


Engineers., 




1874 


1907 


1874 


1907 


1874 


1907 


1874 


1907 


AS OFFICERS— continued. 
Major. 

J Limits of age: 1874— Elite, 44: landwehr, 48; land- 
sturm, 55. 1907- Elite, 48; landwehr, 48; land- 
sturm, 52.1 

As captain: 

Central school, II 


42 
54 


50 

78 


42 

72 
33 
14 


50 

78 
33 


42 

60 
30 
14 


50 

96 
30 


42 

54 
40 
14 


50 


As major: 


78 


Tactical an*! technical courses 


40 




14 










Tot<(l 


620 


707 


853 


895 


693 


861 


732 


840 







THE MILITIA OF SWITZERLAND. 

[From report of Col. William Cary Sanger, 1900.) 

If proof were needed that a land can train all its citizens for the 
efficient and intelligent performance of that work which must be 
done when war comes, and at the same time escape the evils ol what 
is to-day called militarism, that proof can be found in the Republic 
of Switzerland. A RejMiblic with the strongest democratic tenden- 
cies, with a constitution not unlike our own, with intense local pride 
and cherished local traditions, with an inbred conviction that the 
central authority must not unduly encroach upon the rights of the 
Cantons, with a worthy love of peace and its blessings, without the 
slightest thought of atlding a foot to their territory, but with an in- 
tense love of country and a cheerful willingness to perform e\rery duty 
which their citizenship entails, they have evolved and developed a 
military system which has given them the best militia in the world. 
It is o\ the greatest interest to us that in organizing this splencUd 
body of "citizen soldiers" they have worked along the lines laid 
down by the men who framed the Constitution of the United States. 

The rights of the Cantons to name the officers who are to be com- 
missioned, a right which was reserved to the State by our Constitu- 
tion, exists to-day in Switzerland, subject to the limitations oi 
proved efficiency and fitness. 

The organization and discipline of the Swiss Militia is under 
Federal control in Switzerland, just as is prescribed by our Constitu- 
tion; the universal military service stiU remains a theory with us, 
but in Switzerland it is real and actual. But one striking difference 
separates their methods from ours; for over a hundred years we 
have failed to pass any laws or take any action in Congress for im- 
proving and developing our citizen soldiers; Switzerland, on the 
contrary, has profited by experience, and has made its mistakes or 
shortcomings the stepping stones to better conditions; it has care- 
fully and conservatively changed for the better by repeated legisla- 
tive enactments the organization, the equipment, and training of 
the militia until to-day the most competent officers from all over the 
world pay cheerful tribute to its high excellence. This is due in a 



THE SWISS SYSTEM OF NATIONAL DEFENSE. 159 

large measure to the fact that invasion by a foreign foe is considered 
by the Swiss a danger which they must be prepared to meet. 

* * * * * * 

For the American who studies the Swiss military system its most 
surprising feature will be not the obligation of universal military 
service, for this exists m theory in America and is practically a prin- 
ciple of universal application, but the thoroughness and completo- 
ness with which the Swiss have worked out all the details necessary 
to enable the militia to take the field at an hour's notice, equippeil 
and ready for the defense of the fatherland. 

In America and in England there has always been a marked ten- 
dency to leave until the very last moment the settlement of many 
questions connected with the organization of the forces, and in these 
two countries it has sometimes happened that the existing forces 
were not adequately equipped in time of peace to take the field. We 
have accustomed ourselves to believe that this is a distinctive trait 
of democracies, and that complete preparation for war during peace 
would only be made when a State was dominated by the will of a 
powerful emperor. But in Switzerland we find a country strongly 
permeated with the most advanced principles of democracy, care- 
fully arranging every detail of the work which would follow an or- 
der to mobilize their forces, and recognizing the duty, which democ- 
racies especially should not try to evade, of protecting their soldiers 
from umiecessary suffering by giving to the cantonal and Federal 
lorces the best possible organization and proper training. 

******* 

In conclusion I beg to submit the following suggestions regarding 
the action by Congress which would give us a military system based 
upon sound principles, which would make that system conform to 
the spirit and traditions of our institutions, and which would mate- 
rially increase the usefulness of the State forces: 

First. The principles upon which the best and most efficient gen- 
eral staffs of modern armies are organized should be applied to our 
mihtary forces. 

Second. The Army should be given a reservt of its own. 

Third. A plan should be adopted in time of peace for organizing 
the Volunteer forces which must supplement the Army in time of 
war and for selecting the officers of these forces. 

Fourth. The militia should be organized by Congress, and the 
status of this force and the character of the duty which it could be 
ordered to do in time of war should be clearly defined. 

o 



